Organisations compete fiercely to recruit the best graduates, because they consider them a rich source of future talent. In the recruitment literature, it has become increasingly important to understand the factors that influence graduate applicant intentions.
Drawing on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), we tested a model proposing that applicant intention is a function of their attitude towards applying, beliefs about referent other's expectations (subjective norms) and perceived behavioural control with respect to this behaviour.
The study was motivated by the need to shed light on graduate applicants’ decisions to apply to an organisation of their choice.
The study used a quantitative design to test hypotheses that attitudes towards behaviour, norms and control beliefs would influence intention to apply. We surveyed prospective job seekers (
Structural equation modelling showed reasonable fit of the proposed model to the survey data. Latent variable analysis demonstrated that perceived behavioural control and subjective norm explained intention to apply. With the combination of all three variables, only attitude towards applying did not play a significant role in the prediction of intention to apply, which is contrary to previous research.
The findings highlight the role of salient control beliefs in the application process. Efforts by universities and organisations to affect intentions to apply may potentially benefit from focusing on support services that could enhance feelings of control and minimise perceived obstacles. Recruiters could focus on control to increase potential recruitment pools.
The study contributes to the recruitment literature in three ways. Firstly, TPB is shown to be a useful framework to explain graduate applicants’ intention to apply, as this theoretical model found empirical support. In doing so, the present study advances our understanding of how graduates’ intentions to apply are formed. Secondly, the results showed that applicants’ control and normative beliefs dominate when considering applying. Lastly, the study results open up interesting avenues for future research on applicant intentions.
Graduate talent is an increasingly sought-after commodity in the war for talent. As a result, investment in and development of graduates is punted as a strategic imperative. The rise in the popularity of graduate recruitment programmes is testament to the value of tapping into this target group (CEB,
In the recruitment literature there is greater awareness of the need to adopt an applicant perspective to enhance graduate recruitment efforts (Terjesen
Applicant intention to apply is defined as the:
person's desire to submit an application, attend a site visit or second interview, or otherwise indicate a willingness to enter or stay in the applicant pool without committing to a job choice. (Chapman
A few recent studies have explored the factors that shape graduate applicants’ intention to apply. For example, perceived job and organisational characteristics (Gomes & Neves,
Drawing on the TPB (Ajzen,
Our study contributes to existing literature in two ways. Firstly, as compared to earlier studies, we delve deeper into how applicant beliefs explain intentions to apply in combination. Secondly, our results extend the literature to the graduate applicant population specifically.
The attraction of high-potential graduates is the central focus in the war for talent. Graduates are believed to possess ‘drive, enthusiasm and fresh ideas’ as well as having a proven return on investment, higher flexibility, eagerness to learn, new ideas and solutions and good business skills (as compared to non-graduates) (Graduates for Growth,
Measures of intention to perform a particular behaviour (e.g. applying for a position or accepting an appointment to an organisation) are often employed as alternatives to direct behavioural measures. Moreover, when behavioural intentions are correctly measured, they can explain a significant proportion of variance in actual behaviour (Sheeran, Trafimow, Finlay & Norman,
An investigation of graduates’ intentions may best be examined through the lens of TPB. From the TPB perspective, behavioural intentions are viewed as the direct antecedents to behaviour, influenced by the presence of salient beliefs or information about the probability that performing a particular behaviour will lead to a specific outcome (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The TPB rests on two assumptions: (1) human beings are rational and make systematic use of information available to them and (2) people consider the repercussions of their actions before they decide whether to engage in certain behaviours. Moreover, the theory proposes that beliefs about performing a particular behaviour generate a favourable or unfavourable
TPB studies that have focused on the investigation of graduate students remain limited. One study, by Jaidi
The TPB provides a multifaceted framework for the description of the behaviour of interest, that is, the engagement in and completion of the application procedure. With this in mind, the application of the TPB is discussed in order to explore the variables associated with intention to apply.
Attitude is the first antecedent of behavioural intention. Simplistically stated, it is the aggregate of an individual's positive or negative beliefs about the consequence of performing a specific behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). An attitude towards the behaviour is acquired through an automatic and simultaneous internal association and evaluation process (Ajzen,
Previous studies argue that, even though an individual may feel attracted to an employer, they may not want to apply for a job or desire employment there (Van Hooft, Born & Taris,
Subjective norm is the function of one's normative beliefs that specific individuals approve or disapprove of performing a particular behaviour. An individual will intend to perform a particular behaviour when they perceive that important others think they should. The degree to which important others approve or disapprove of performing a given behaviour also influences intention. Important others might be a person's parents, close friends, lecturers, and so on. Normative beliefs are thereby influenced by beliefs about the expectations of relevant others and the extent to which the individual is motivated to conform to these expectations (Ajzen,
Normative beliefs are further reliant on interpersonal influences (e.g. word-of-mouth information from family, friends and colleagues or peers for an individual to perform the behaviour) and external influence (e.g. mass media reports, government promotion and other non-personal information affecting whether the individual performs the behaviour) (Bhattacherjee as cited in Lin,
These studies suggest that when graduates believe that their close family and friends would think it is the right thing to do, they would be more likely to apply. On the other hand, when they believe it is not important to those close to them, they would be less likely to apply. Based on the theoretical arguments and empirical literature, we propose the following:
Perceived behavioural control is associated with the volitional control an individual possesses when enacting behaviour. Perceived behavioural control refers to the degree to which an individual feels that the decision to perform or not perform behaviour is under their volitional control (Ajzen,
The level of perceived behaviour control an applicant experiences is based on the beliefs held about their own ability and suitability for the position that is applied for, as well as the possibility of being selected for consideration. Outcome expectations and efficacy expectations are both strong contributors to these harboured control beliefs (Liebert & Spiegler,
A measure of perceived behavioural control would assess the extent to which respondents believe they have the ability to perform the behaviour and how much the behaviour is under their control (Ajzen,
Perceived behavioural control can influence behaviour directly or indirectly through behavioural intentions. A direct path from perceived behavioural control to behaviour emerges when there is some agreement between perceptions of control and the person's actual control over the behaviour (Lin,
The theory of planned behaviour suggests that the act of applying may depend on applicant intentions. A prospective applicant's submission of an application to an organisation precedes the formation of an intention. Intention to apply is, in turn, predicted by (1) attitude towards applying, (2) subjective norm and (3) perceived behavioural control. The TPB has been successfully employed in many studies to predict different types of behaviours including the prediction of job pursuit intentions (Jaidi
Proposed model of graduate intention to apply.
The study used a quantitative approach to gather data for analysis. A retrospective correlational design was employed to gather empirical evidence for testing the hypotheses.
The study was conducted at a South African university situated in the Western Cape. A convenience sample of 854 participants who were anticipating entering the job market soon was invited to complete the online survey questionnaire. We contacted senior students (i.e. final-year, honours, master's and PhD students, drawn from nine faculties) via email following an on-campus career fair, a time when most would be seeking and considering employment. The majority of respondents were final-year (third or fourth year) students (47%) from the faculty of Economic Management Sciences (30%), Engineering (17%), Arts and Social Science (17%) and Science (16%). Sixty percent had started searching for employment and 50% had applied for a position as part of their current job-search. The sample contained relatively inexperienced job seekers, as only 22% were previously employed. Just more than half (56%) of the respondents were women. The ethnic breakdown included 80% white, 10% mixed-race, 9% African and 1% Asian respondents. The average age of the prospective job seekers was 24 years (SD = 4.93 years).
Participants were invited via email to complete an online survey. The aim and nature of the study and pertinent ethical considerations were communicated, including the right to informed consent, privacy and confidentiality. The participants were not required to provide their names or any other form of identification. Although they could opt out of the study at any time, the electronic survey required a response on every item in order to ensure complete responses. The data file was password-protected on the e-survey platform and only accessible to the primary researcher.
In order to assess the measurement properties of the scales, we used SPSS version 20 to conduct item analysis and dimensionality analysis. The internal factor structure of the measure was evaluated with confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using LISREL 8.80 (Du Toit & Du Toit, 2001). To this end, item parcels were created for the Attitude, Control and Intention scales. The subjective norm scale consisted of five items and was thus not parcelled. Finally, structural equation modelling (SEM) was employed to assess the fit of the proposed structural model (see
The standardised factor loadings of the intention to apply structural model.Note: ATA, attitude towards applying item parcel; ATTITUDE, attitude towards applying; CON, perceived behavioural control item parcel; CONTROL, perceived behavioural control; NORM, subjective norm; SN, subjective norm item.
Item analysis was performed on the item responses using the SPSS Reliability procedure. The results showed high (0.82 <
Next, CFA was conducted on the combined measurement model, showing good fit: Sattora Bentler χ2 = 49.36 (
Next, we tested the assumptions of multivariate analysis using SPSS version 20. The assumptions diagnostics resulted in 31 cases (3.63% of total cases) being deleted, comprising 13 cases with missing data and 18 significant univariate or multivariate outliers (
The descriptive statistics are presented in
Analysis of univariate descriptives for all variables (
Variable | Number of items | α | M | SD | Skewness | Kurtosis | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Statistic | SE | Statistic | SE | |||||
Intention to apply | 4 | 0.87 | 5.9 | 1.1 | −0.980 | 0.085 | 0.403 | 0.169 |
Attitude towards applying | 10 | 0.83 | 36.1 | 6.3 | −0.352 | 0.085 | −0.090 | 0.169 |
Subjective norm | 5 | 0.87 | 22.1 | 9.9 | 0.296 | 0.085 | −0.284 | 0.169 |
Perceived behavioural control | 14 | 0.84 | 33.3 | 7.3 | −0.149 | 0.085 | −0.279 | 0.169 |
α , alpha; M, mean; SD, standard deviation; SE, standard error
Note: Descriptive statistics represent unweighted linear composite total values calculated for each of the variable subscales.
Hypothesis 1 proposed that attitude towards applying would have a significant positive effect on applicant intention to apply. The path coefficient was not statistically significant:
Hypothesis 2 proposed that applicants’ subjective norm beliefs would have a significant positive effect on their intention to apply. The path coefficient was significant:
Hypothesis 3 proposed that perceived behavioural control would have a significant positive effect on the prospective applicant's intention to apply. The path coefficient was significant:
Latent variable path coefficients between intention to apply and the three TPB variables (unstandardised gamma matrix) (
Factor | γ | SE | |
---|---|---|---|
Attitude | −0.03 | 0.05 | −0.53 |
Norm | 0.09 | 0.04 | 2.67* |
Control | 0.58 | 0.05 | 11.48* |
γ, completely standardised path coefficients; SE, standard error estimates.
†, t ≥│1.96│indicates significant parameter estimates
In addition to these tests of unique effects of each predictor on intentions to apply, we also determined the individual latent bivariate correlations (see
Intercorrelations †(gamma) of the latent variables in the TPB structural model (
Variables | α | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Intention to apply | 0.87 | – | |||
2. Perceived behavioural control | 0.84 | 0.59 | – | ||
3. Subjective norm | 0.87 | 0.26 | 0.29 | – | |
4. Attitude towards applying | 0.83 | 0.38 | 0.64 | 0.29 | – |
The correlations reported are latent variables correlations and have been disattenuated for measurement error.
†, factor loadings are completely standardised (lambda X).
Finally, Hypothesis 4 proposed that a model that combines attitude towards applying, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control would significantly explain applicant intention to apply. Structural equations modelling showed reasonable fit: Sattora Bentler χ2 = 49.36 (
We also tested the discriminant validity to ensure that the relationships in the structural model were not caused by statistical discrepancies (Farrell,
Goodness-of-fit indices obtained for the measurement and structural models.
Variable | RMSEA | pclose fit | SRMR | GFI | AGFI | NNFI | NFI | CFI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Structural model CFA | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.94 | 0.91 | 0.98 | 0.97 | 0.98 |
AGFI, adjusted goodness-of-fit index; CFI, comparative fit index; GFI, goodness-of-fit; NNFI, non-normed fit index; Pclose fit, P-value for test of close fit (H0:
The objective of the present study was to examine, within a graduate sample, the role of attitude towards applying, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control in the formation of intentions to apply to an organisation.
The present study examined the relationships between graduate applicants’ salient beliefs about applying for a job and their intentions to apply. Drawing on the TPB (Ajzen,
The prominent role that perceived behavioural control played (in this sample) in the formation of intentions is contrary to what has been previously reported (Lin,
Our results similarly show that subjective norm was also a significant indicator of graduates intention to apply albeit smaller than control. The evidence suggests that graduates ascribe value to the perceptions of their peers and family and are more likely to apply when they believe that applying to an organisation of their choice is important to these referent others (Arnold
Whilst earlier studies show that attitudes are strong predictors of intentions (Notani,
To conclude, the results did not completely correspond with findings from previous literature on the TPB model. We confirmed that subjective norm and perceived behavioural control were significant predictors of intention to apply. However, the hypothesis for attitude towards applying and its relationship with intention to apply was not supported. This finding highlights the need to further explore these relationships in the graduating student population.
The study contributes to practice by highlighting the importance of applicants’ salient beliefs in the job application process. Both tertiary institutions and government value the uptake of graduates in the labour market. It is therefore important to be aware of individuals who perceive low control in or obstacles to the application process and to ascertain whether it is located in specific samples or groups. Organisations should be aware that application procedures that are accessible and provide relevant selection information could serve to enhance applicants’ control beliefs. Applicants who feel they meet the requirements and have the resources to succeed in the application and selection process may be more likely to apply. Partnership between organisations and graduate career services, offered at tertiary institutions, has the potential to leverage recruitment drives through efficient applicant sourcing. Moreover, the applicant pool can be widened by drawing in applicants who have low control beliefs. Career counselling services could also be offered to graduates who intend to apply in order to overcome feelings of low control over the application process and evaluate whether their beliefs are valid (or supported by fact or evidence). Facilitating applicant efficacy beliefs may encourage graduates to engage in the application process.
Findings also show that peer norms or referent others play an important role in applicant intentions to apply. The respondents indicated that they were motivated to comply with expectations of them to apply to an organisation of their choice. Targeting graduates referent groups could provide alternative avenues for influencing graduate perceptions and decisions to apply. Applicants may turn to referent others for approval or information that may influence the probability of a prospective applicant submitting an application (Van Hoye & Lievens,
This research study had limitations that must be considered. Firstly, convenience sampling limits the generalisability of the results. However, a wide range of students, from the large sample drawn (
A second limitation relates to our use of the same source of data for all study variables. Common-method bias could have affected the results. The effect of common-method bias can be limited by the use of different groups of people when collecting data (Krause,
Despite these limitations, we took several steps to increase the internal and external validity of the present study. The survey was directed at final-year graduates who intended to seek employment in the near future. In addition, we collected the data at a time when final-year students were searching for employment.
We see exciting opportunities to extend our research. Firstly, more complex dynamics between the TPB variables and intention to apply to an organisation may underlie the formation of applicant intentions (Ajzen,
Secondly, this study sampled university students from one tertiary institution in the Western Cape. Future research should endeavour to replicate these results at other tertiary institutions. Factors such as race, gender and institution (historically black or historically white university) differences may provide important insights to graduates’ intentions and decisions.
Finally, the present investigation highlighted the role of beliefs in the application process and the relation to the formation of intentions to apply to an organisation. However, these beliefs, and their resultant outcomes, are highly contextualised within a socio-demographic context (Moleke,
The present study showed that behavioural beliefs matter in graduate applicants’ intentions to apply. The TPB thus provided a useful framework from the examination of graduates’ beliefs in the job application process. These results are an opening attempt to establish a foundation for future research in the recruitment context, particularly the graduate population. By developing an understanding of prospective applicants’ decisions, organisations can use these insights when planning and developing their recruitment efforts. Proficient recruitment activities ensure the attraction of high-quality applicants, increasing the utility of the selection process and limiting the number of applicants that could potentially pull out (Gomes & Neves,
The authors would like to thank Prof. Gert Huysamen (Stellenbosch University) and Prof. Johan Malan (Stellenbosch University) for inputs on earlier versions of this article. We would also like to acknowledge the support of the Industrial Psychology Niche Area Bursary at Stellenbosch University for this study.
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
S.A. (Stellenbosch University) was responsible for the conceptualisation of the study, data collection, data analysis and write-up of the article. F.D.K. (University of Cape Town) contributed to conceptualisation of the study and revision of the manuscript.
The following items are examples of questions presented in the survey and do not reflect the full questionnaire.
Note: Full measure is available on request from the first author.
The pilot study was qualitative in nature with a sample of 32 students drawn from two universities (one historically black and the other historically white). A thematic content analysis of the interview data was conducted to identify participants’ salient beliefs towards applying for a job. The majority of the sample was female (68.8%) with an average age of 23. The demographic breakdown of the total qualitative sample was 21 mixed-race students, nine white and two black.
Structural model path coefficients were used to test the hypotheses and not bivariate correlations, as the former is presently the dominant practice (Farrell, 2010). The path coefficients are essentially unstandardised regression coefficients and reflect the unique effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable, that is, discounting the effect of the other independent variables (IVs). As such, it is a much stricter test of the hypotheses as the focus falls on unique effects of the IVs.