Spousal support is a crucial area to explore, particularly due to the increased prevalence of dual-career couples in South Africa and the dynamics facing them.
The main objective of this study was to explore Indian wives’ perceptions regarding the support they receive from their husbands and the impact that such support has on their career progression.
The limited qualitative research available globally on the subject and the dearth of research that focuses on Indian professional females in the South African context motivated the study.
A qualitative research approach was followed, and the data were collected through in-depth, life-story interviews. Purposeful and snowball sampling methods yielded a sample of nine Indian female managers who were in dual-career marriages.
Spouses are essential sources of support for Indian professional women. The findings revealed that there are various marital and socio-cultural dynamics that impact on the spousal support received by these women, which ultimately influences their career advancement.
The findings provided valuable information regarding the marital challenges that Indian women face in their career progression. The awareness of such dynamics can assist management in devising strategies to accommodate and retain the unique talent that Indian women have to offer.
The study contributes to the evolving body of knowledge on dual-career couples by focusing on an under-researched, but essential aspect of the dual-career arrangement.
The career aspirations of women worldwide gave rise to the increasing prevalence of dual-career couples who are required to constantly navigate between their personal and professional lives (Abele & Volmer,
In an attempt to understand why this underrepresentation occurs, researchers have focused on the organisational factors that obstruct the career advancement of women (Bilimoria, Joy & Liang,
The need for research that focuses specifically on the husband in a dual-career arrangement is intensified in the Indian context, as traditional Indian culture requires women to be devoted and subservient to their husbands (Rastogi & Bansal,
Earlier studies conducted in the South African context focused mainly on the experiences of white and black female managers in their career progression, while Indian females have been studied as a subcategory of black women and have not been examined exclusively (Booysen & Nkomo,
The literature review in the following section analyses the theoretical framework on spousal support along with the socio-cultural dynamics that have impacted on the career progression of Indian women and spousal support amongst dual-career couples. The research methodology and results of the study are then presented and discussed. Finally, the conclusions, shortcomings of the research and recommendations for future research are discussed.
The main theoretical framework on which the study focused is spousal support theory. Kanter (
Cohen, Granot-Shilovsky and Yishai (
The Indian culture has been classified as being collective in nature, wherein members of the group abide by the customs of the social group in order to be accepted (Carrim,
The traditions originating from India have impacted on South African Indian women with the culture prescribing women to be primarily responsible for domestic tasks and husbands to be the financial providers for the family (Patel
However, the roles of Indian women are changing to include an occupational identity (Valk & Srinivasan,
Research conducted by Panda (
Previous research revealed that many Indian women would not be comfortable with their husbands undertaking work in the home realm (Patel & Parmentier,
Two main types of spousal support have been identified by researchers, namely emotional and instrumental support (Valk & Srinivasan,
The study conducted by Gordon and Whelan-Berry (
The spouse has been dubbed an essential source of support in dual-earner families, even though support may be received from other avenues (Ezzedeen & Ritchey,
It is also evident that spouses have a substantial impact on their wives’ career decisions (Rastogi & Bansal,
Due to the subjective nature of the topic and the limited research available on the subject, both globally and in South Africa, a qualitative approach was chosen. Qualitative research is also effective in constructing a better understanding of variables that are difficult to quantify, such as attitudes, political opinions or religious beliefs (Deeptee & Roshan,
In-depth, life-story interviews were conducted with nine Indian female managers in dual-career marriages. This strategy was adopted in order to gain a better understanding of the various factors that shape the perceptions that Indian female executives currently hold with regard to the spousal support they receive in their career advancement.
Face-to-face interviews were conducted at a convenient and comfortable location for the participants. In most cases, the participants’ homes were used to conduct the interviews. In cases where participants were afraid that their husbands, or other family members, would eavesdrop on what they were saying, one of the researcher’s home was used as a venue for the interview.
The key informants for this study were employees occupying lower level positions in the respective companies where the participants were employed. These employees provided the contact details of Indian female managers who were potential participants for this study. The managers were contacted via email or telephone and a meeting was then scheduled with participants who met the criteria for inclusion in the study and who were willing to participate, at a suitable time and venue.
A blend of purposive and snowball, non-probability sampling methods were used to obtain participants for the study. Purposive sampling is a strategy that is used to select individuals who will provide the most information about the subject being examined, to participate in a study (Barbour,
The participants had to occupy a managerial position so that we could explore the pressures ensuing from both personal and professional domains as a result of their career progression.
The participants had to be Indian so that the cultural context could be investigated and the unique challenges faced by this minority group could be understood.
The participants had to be married and in dual-career relationships, as this criterion requires commitment to the spouse and/or the family in addition to work obligations.
Snowball sampling was also used in which participants were informants and recommended potential participants for the study (Sommer & Sommer,
Biographical summary of participants.
Pseudonym | Age range | Children | Job level relative to spouse | Earnings relative to spouse |
---|---|---|---|---|
Wife 1 | 25–34 | Yes | Higher | Similar |
Wife 2 | 45–54 | Yes | Higher | Similar |
Wife 3 | 35–44 | Yes | Equal | Lower |
Wife 4 | 45–54 | Yes | Higher | Higher |
Wife 5 | 25–34 | Yes | Higher | Lower |
Wife 6 | 35–44 | Yes | Equal | Higher |
Wife 7 | 45–54 | Yes | Higher | Similar |
Wife 8 | 25–34 | Yes | Higher | Not aware |
Wife 9 | 45–54 | Yes | Higher | Higher |
Data were collected using in-depth, semi-structured interviews as this method is beneficial in gaining insight into the actions of individuals and pursuing fresh perspectives of the phenomena under study (Robson,
Open-ended questions were asked during the interview to allow participants to respond freely and for the discussion to focus on issues of greatest significance to them (Barbour,
An interview guide was used and the questions were asked in a methodical manner through the use of a semi-structured interview format. This allowed the researchers to probe when unclear responses were given (Rubin & Rubin,
Prior to the main interviews, two pilot interviews were conducted with females who met the predetermined criteria. After the interviews were conducted, participants were questioned about their experience of the interview process, unclear questions and those that did not elicit the required information were amended, and the interview schedule was modified.
Recording of the interviews was performed through the use of a digital voice recorder once permission was obtained from the participants to do so. The interviews were then transcribed verbatim for further analysis. An additional recording device was used as a backup in case any technical difficulties arose. An interview feedback form was used to document field notes, which included the body language of interviewees, reflective notes, contextual information about the interview and in certain cases, important information revealed by the interviewees after the recorder had been turned off. Permission to use information after the recorder was switched off was obtained from participants. The participants agreed that the information could be used, provided the information did not identify them.
Thematic content analysis was used to analyse the verbatim transcripts of the interviews conducted and the field notes documented in order to gain a better understanding of the responses and to make sense of the data. The data analysis process as indicated by Creswell (
Triangulation of the data was done to construct a comprehensible justification for the themes that emerged. This was done through discussions with individuals who were well informed about the Indian culture. Discussions related to the topic were followed on a Facebook group named
The entire project was reviewed by an independent, qualitative researcher to ensure an objective evaluation of the study’s outcomes. In order to validate the information provided, member checks were conducted, as recommended by Cresswell (2009). In addition, detailed descriptions of the participants and the associated contexts were provided to enhance transferability (Maree,
The research findings are discussed in the subsequent section and follow a reporting style that is objective. The main themes and subthemes are discussed, which are substantiated by verbatim excerpts from the data and existing theory. In order to ensure the confidentiality of the information obtained, all identifying information was removed from the transcripts and pseudonyms were assigned to the participants.
The findings focus on the pertinent socio-cultural and marital dynamics that have shaped the women’s perceptions regarding the spousal support they receive in their career progression.
Most participants concurred that the traditional Indian culture prescribed compartmentalised roles for men and women. Specifically, women were required to adopt the role of being housewives, while men ought to be the breadwinners of the home. Wife 4 highlights the role that women fulfilled in traditional Indian homes:
‘They did all the cooking and cleaning. They were domesticated women, they didn’t do anything else.’ [Wife 4, medical manager, 52 years old]
Over time, changes in these traditional roles were seen as Indian women began educating themselves and ventured into the working world. However, many educated Indian women did not pursue careers as a result of a personal choice, as decreed by their spouse, or as instructed by extended family members. Wife 5 recalls family members who left the working arena as their husbands instructed them to do so:
‘I had aunts who were teachers and they stopped teaching. I had an aunt who was a doctor and she stopped because her husband wanted her to stay at home.’ [Wife 5, tax manager, 32 years old]
Wife 1 describes the influence that extended family members, particularly the wives’ in-laws, can have on an Indian woman’s decision to pursue a career:
‘I can think of a friend that dropped out of working. She was a qualified lawyer but she married into a very orthodox family, so she stopped.’ [Wife 1, medical manager, 33 years old]
However, the participants’ families encouraged them to pursue careers which were not limited in scope. Thus, the shift from women being housewives to being professionals was apparent. Female participants also stated that a career in a male-dominated field was acceptable, as Wife 1 indicates:
‘I was never ever told that I can’t do anything or that certain jobs are not for women. If I wanted to be a pilot, I could have done that.’ [Wife 1, medical manager, 33 years old]
Participants highlighted that the transformation also included careers taking precedence over traditional gender roles amongst women in the current Indian society, as Wife 1 explains:
‘There’s definitely a trend towards the independent woman and the career woman. Women are even getting married later these days because they are establishing their careers.’ [Wife 1, medical manager, 33 years old]
This transformation has been attributed to the rising cost of living and the heightened need for independence. Black economic empowerment also contributed to this revolution as it provides further opportunities for Indian women to advance than those that existed in the past. However, participants indicated that even though this transformation occurred and a division of labour exists in their households, women are still held primarily responsible for domestic tasks which include child rearing, cooking and managing the home. This situation is described by Wife 6:
‘At the end of the day no matter what you do, no matter what your level is in the workplace, there are certain responsibilities at home that are primarily yours.’ [Wife 6, legal manager, 43 years old]
The greatest challenge experienced by Indian women is the balancing of work and family demands. Specifically, the participants noted the occurrence of a negative spill over between work and family life, as Wife 8 describes:
‘Although people say work stays at work and home stays at home, as humans it’s completely impossible to do that. You come home and you still thinking of this problem that you trying to sort out at work. As a mother you worry about your kids especially if they are not well or they’ve got an appointment, they’ve got projects or something. As a wife you worry about your spouse.’ [Wife 8, financial manager, 34 years old]
In addition, the participants identified the limited time that they have as a major challenge as they are unable to distribute the time equally between their professions, spouses and children, and having time to attend to their personal needs. This resulted in feelings of guilt brewing amongst Indian professional women, which was heightened when they had to embark on work-related travel and spend greater hours away from the home. Guilt also arose as certain family or community members, who accepted the traditionally defined gender roles, criticised Indian professional women for pursuing careers, as Wife 5 explains:
‘Many of my mother’s sisters think that I am doing something wrong by going out and working. I get a lot of comments from friends and family that I should actually be at home and looking after my son because he is more important.’ [Wife 5, tax manager, 32 years old]
Regardless of the challenges experienced, the two main reasons why the women were employed were to satisfy a personal need, as well as to fulfil a financial need. The women highlighted that being involved in careers provided them with independence due to the earning power that a career affords and fulfilled their need for personal growth as they classified their work as being challenging and intellectually stimulating. Participants also indicated that working women are respected in the Indian community. Wife 3 explains how her employment earned her respect from her spouse and family members:
‘It’s a typical Indian thing where once a woman starts working the whole family respects you more. When I was at home I started feeling like I’m not part of the outside world and then the family members who worked would all be talking and I don’t contribute because I don’t know. Respect came from him and from the entire family and now when anyone comes over I can have a conversation with them.’ [Wife 3, medical technologist manager, 42 years old]
Wife 9 pointed out the importance of her career, as it allows her to interact with other adults, which serves as replacement for the lack of communication with her spouse:
‘There’s that kind of communication that I have with the other adults that really stimulates me. I think there’s an underlying need because there’s no stimulation from a partner at home that I can talk to or discuss with.’ [Wife 9, medical manager, 53 years old]
Two participants indicated that their husbands were unsupportive of their career advancement, while the remaining seven participants classified their husbands as supportive due to the physical and emotional support that they offer. Physical support includes domestic duties such as cooking and child rearing. Wife 1 provides a description of the physical support offered by her husband:
‘He told me once a week if I just need a break from work and from the house then he’ll come home early and take over. I can then go for yoga or just meet my friends for a cup of coffee if I want to.’ [Wife 1, medical manager, 33 years old]
Emotional support comprises the motivation, understanding and advice required by the women to manage their work-related distresses, career decisions and educational choices. Wife 6 explains the emotional support received from her husband when pursuing an educational opportunity:
‘He feels that I should always advance my studies so he encourages me and says “Look it can only be good for you, go ahead and do it”.’ [Wife 6, legal manager, 43 years old]
The women highlighted the significance of emotional support received by husbands, as expressed by Wife 2:
‘I rely on my husband emotionally a lot because I really just want him to say “It’s okay if you can’t do it all”.’ [Wife 2, human resource manager, 50 years old]
The participants, who classified their husbands as unsupportive, indicated that they did not receive financial, physical or emotional support from their spouses. This resulted in them bearing an overload of tasks as their responsibilities lie in both the home and work domains. Wife 4 compares her situation to that of being a single parent:
‘It’s very difficult to play all the roles. I have to help out with the children’s homework, their emotional needs, and whatever they need I have to sort it out. Then my own personal things after they go to bed at night, then I sort out my work issues. So it’s very difficult. It’s almost like being a single parent.’ [Wife 4, medical manager, 52 years old]
The roles adopted by the participants’ parents had a significant impact on the manner in which participants evaluated the behaviour of their husbands and their perceptions regarding women’s career advancement. Wife 4 illustrates this as she compares her husband as a non-provider to her father who was a breadwinner:
‘My dad was a sole provider and he provided very well. It just came across that the man should be the provider. I never even had a second thought that a man won’t provide.’ [Wife 4, medical manager, 52 years old]
Wife 7 explains that her husband’s perceptions regarding women’s career advancement were shaped by the roles adopted by the women in his family:
‘My husband understands that I’m not the typical housewife. His family background is different as his mother was educated. She was a smart woman and she ran three or four businesses successfully.’ [Wife 7, financial manager, 54 years old]
All participants iterated the importance of spousal support for their career advancement. Emotional support provided the women with the necessary impetus to advance, while physical support allowed the women to focus on work-related tasks. Wife 8 states the impact that her husband’s support had on her career advancement:
‘I don’t think I would have advanced without his support. Especially if I had a husband who didn’t help me with the kids, it would have been very difficult. I don’t think I would have had the guts to try things or apply for courses and do things differently.’ [Wife 8, financial manager, 34 years old]
The participants, who classified their husbands as unsupportive, highlighted the negative effects that such circumstances had on their careers, as Wife 9 explains:
‘I think I would have been further in my career life. I had to limit it because of my home situation. I was a very career-orientated, academic type of person. I think I would have been a professor.’ [Wife 9, medical manager, 53 years old]
Thus, the participants agreed that the choice of spouse is crucial for the career progression of women. The words of Wife 9 mirror that of the majority of participants:
‘My advice would be that if women want to pursue careers, they must think twice about who they marry. If you are a professional, you should marry somebody that is also a professional.’ [Wife 9, medical manager, 53 years old]
Marriage is held in high esteem in the Indian culture and is deemed to be blessed when the parents choose or approve of the spouse for their child. Wife 7 describes how she was rejected by her family because they did not approve of the person she chose to marry:
‘My parents were not in favour of me getting married to my husband so when I turned twenty-one I walked out of the house and got married. When I left home, I lost a lot of respect in the community and people actually looked down upon me. My family didn’t have anything to do with me for almost twenty-two years.’ [Wife 7, financial manager, 54 years old]
The majority of participants regarded their families to be nuclear. However, most of them had an extended family member for whom they were responsible and either resided with them or lived nearby. Many participants indicated that such a situation results in an additional responsibility being placed on their shoulders, as Wife 8 explains:
‘My mother-in-law came to stay with us about three years ago. That was a challenge because we were independent and then she came in. She’s old and she’s not very well so in terms of that it is a challenge.’ [Wife 8, financial manager, 34 years old]
However, participants also mentioned the benefits of having extended family members present as Wife 3 explains:
‘My mother-in-law lives next door. It’s a big positive to know that she’s around and that she’ll check up on the maid and on my son.’ [Wife 3, medical technologist manager, 42 years old]
Amongst most of the couples, the wives reached a higher education level than their husbands. In certain cases, the level of education of spouses relative to one another had a positive effect on their marital relationships, as it encouraged the husbands to advance academically. However, in other cases it impacted negatively on the way the spouses perceived each other, as Wife 9 describes:
‘He never studied and he never achieved anything. He’s a nothing.’ [Wife 9, medical manager, 53 years old]
In terms of their careers, the women excelled in their respective fields, with many having received awards and prestigious nominations. The majority of wives also occupied a higher career position than their husbands, as depicted by Wife 4:
‘I moved up faster than him. Now eventually he’s in sort of a managerial position but I’ve been there for the past ten years.’ [Wife 4, medical manager, 52 years old]
The majority of the women reported that their husbands viewed their career successes in a positive light, with reports of the husbands being happy and proud of their wives. However, two women indicated that they faced negative repercussions from their husbands as a result of their career progression. The women indicated that their career advancement resulted in a power struggle ensuing in their marriages, which led to them being verbally and/or physically abused by their husbands. Wife 9 describes such a situation:
‘He’s definitely got an inferiority complex and that is why he tries to use violence as the only mechanism to show his power. When he’s abusive, he’ll scream and say: “Go and bring your f***ing organisation for me, I’m not frightened of them. Don’t think you’re this big person in the organisation.” In that way it comes out.’ [Wife 9, medical manager, 53 years old]
In terms of the income levels of the couples, three women earned approximately the same as their spouses, two wives earned less than their husbands, three wives earned more than their husbands and one participant was unsure about her husband’s earnings. Three participants indicated that they were the primary breadwinners in their homes and thus work to provide financial support for their families. Most participants indicated that their financial status did not affect their husbands and thus did not experience negative repercussions as a result of their earnings. However, some wives also felt that they received less support from their husbands due to their earnings. Wife 9 describes the financial responsibility that rests on her shoulders:
‘He earns very little and most of what he earns he takes for himself. How would my kids survive without me?’ [Wife 9, medical manager, 53 years old]
Mixed results were obtained regarding decision-making in their relationships. Most of the participants indicated that decisions were made through consultation with their husbands. However, participants mentioned that the ultimate decision-making power rests with the husbands, as Wife 2 indicates:
‘I said to him that I think this is what I think we should be doing but it was really up to him in the end to say yes. If he said no, he doesn’t think it’s going to work then I would have just left it.’ [Wife 2, human resource manager, 50 years old]
A few women indicated that decision-making is autocratic in their homes, with the husband being responsible for making important decisions. In other instances, the decision-making responsibility primarily rests with the wives, as Wife 4 explains:
‘I do consult him occasionally but he’s very difficult to approach and he doesn’t want to commit himself so most of the times I make the decisions on my own.’ [Wife 4, medical manager, 52 years old]
As a result, the majority of the women also revealed that their husbands’ careers take precedence most of the time, as Wife 5 explains:
‘His career always comes first. I’m starting a new job tomorrow and he just left to go to another province yesterday. His things always come first and I just have to manage.’ [Wife 5, tax manager, 32 years old]
In alignment with Valk and Srinivasan (
In accordance with the findings of Narayan and Bhardwaj (
The predominant reasons why women work, as revealed in this study, support the findings of Olarte (
The current study reveals that certain marital dynamics impacted on the perceptions regarding women’s career advancement and ultimately on the support offered by the spouses. Amongst most of the couples, the wives obtained a higher education level and occupied a higher career position than their spouses. Most of the husbands responded positively to their wives’ career success, although in certain marriages it was reported that the husbands felt threatened by their wives’ progression. In addition, male dominance was a strong underlying thread that was apparent, as men were given greater power over important matters in the marriage. These dynamics can be attributed to the patriarchal attitudes embedded in the husbands and confirms the assertion by Banerjee (
The financial responsibility, amongst most of the couples in this study, was shared between the spouses and the wives were satisfied with this arrangement. However, wives who indicated that they were the primary breadwinners in their homes and earned more than their husbands feared that these dynamics would brew competitive feelings in their husbands, as was found in the study conducted by Steil and Weltman (
However, participants also highlighted that their earnings and career status afforded them with decision-making power. Most of the women indicated that decisions were made jointly with their spouses, although some women, who earned more than their husbands, indicated that they were responsible for decision-making in their homes. Similar outcomes were obtained by Ruddick (
Family background was found to be one of the main factors impacting on the perceptions and behaviour of spouses in relation to women’s career advancement. Female family members, especially the mothers, emulated the appropriate gender roles for Indian women who were accepted by the participants and their husbands. Akin to the findings by Gordon and Whelan-Berry (
Wives who classified their husbands as unsupportive indicated that their spouses did not provide physical, emotional or financial support. The study conducted by Rao
Husbands serve as an essential source of support for Indian professional women to progress in their careers to their maximum potential. The study revealed that most Indian women receive the necessary physical and emotional support from their husbands, which assists in their career progression. However, there are instances where women do not receive spousal support and this impedes their career advancement, as women have to manage their domestic responsibilities in addition to their work tasks. Although there is a transformation from the traditional gender expectations to the acceptance and encouragement of career women, Indian women are not emancipated from domestic and childcare responsibilities, even in relationships classified as being egalitarian. Thus, Indian women are required to concurrently embrace the roles of professional, partner and parent. Various factors, such as the education and career levels of spouses, reasons for the wives working, decision-making power in the relationship and the earnings of spouses have resulted in interesting dynamics transpiring that impacts on the spousal support received by Indian women in dual-career marriages and ultimately on their career progression.
This study creates awareness to management in organisations about the marital challenges Indian professional women face in their climb up the corporate ladder. It fills a gap in knowledge, as it is one of the first studies that focuses on Indian dual-career couples in the South African context and assists in explaining the dearth of Indian women in senior and top management positions in the country. From the findings of this study, organisations can develop strategies to counter the challenges experienced by these women and ultimately capitalise on the talent that this ethnic minority group has to offer. However, a limitation of this study is that it focused solely on the wives perceptions of spousal support in the Indian cultural context. Future research can include both husbands’ and wives’ viewpoints and can focus on other cultural groups in South Africa so that comparisons in the results can be drawn.
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
S.F.A. conducted the data analysis and the final integration of the data and wrote the introduction, literature review, research design, findings, discussion and conclusion. She submitted the final draft for language editing and made corrections based on recommendations from the language editor. N.M.H.C. provided guidelines for improving the article, reviewed the data analysis, provided feedback on the final integration of data and provided feedback on the final copy of the article.