A post-positivistic (Zammito, 2004) qualitative content analytic (Duriau, Reger & Pfarrer, 2007) and descriptive research design (Creswell, 2013; De Vos, Strydom, Fouche & Delport, 2002) was employed in this study. Post-positivism is an interpretive qualitative framework which accepts that philosophies, theorems, objects, ideas and knowledge are developed as a result of the investigative process, where context is required to interpret, or ‘process’ the researched reality whilst adhering to the principles of scientific rigour (Van Zyl, 2013b).

The study was conducted through presenting registered IOP’s with an open-ended questionnaire by means of an electronic web-based questionnaire. The structured, open-ended web-based questionnaire format was employed to obtain participants’ natural, spontaneous responses and to avoid the associative biases which may result from suggestive responses (Reja, Manfreda, Hlebec & Vehovar, 2003). Research suggests that responses obtained through open-ended web-based questionnaires provides richer responses (Miller & Lambert, 2014; Reja et al., 2003; Saris & Gallhofer, 2014) although, it may be subject to increased levels of survey non-response (Saris & Gallhofer, 2014). Further, the online research setting allows for the participant to engage with the questionnaire at his and/or her own time and pace, in an environment which is comfortable and convenient.

Potential participants were identified through the HPCSA database of registered IOPs. A web-based questionnaire was developed alongside a document explaining the purpose, objectives, and nature of the study and sent to the participants. This document highlighted the roles and responsibilities (e.g. confidentiality, informed consent, right to withdraw etc.) of all stakeholders (respondents and researchers) and explained the research procedure (i.e. expectations of participants, time associated with completion). Contact information for the researcher was provided, should participants have required further information or clarification.

A census-based sample (n = 151) of IOPs across South Africa (N = 1688) was drawn. Table 1 provides a detailed overview of the demographics of the sample. The majority of the respondents were married (64, 90%), Afrikaans speaking (58, 28%), white (87, 42%), females (64, 9%) between the ages of 30 and 39 years (29, 14%) with children (60, 26%). Further, the majority of the participants obtained their master’s degree from the North-West University (22, 51%) and have been registered as psychologists between 1 and 5 years (35, 1%), with 115 respondents being employed by an organisation (75, 49%) as opposed to 34 participants being self-employed (22, 52%). These individuals were predominantly employed in a large organisation (67, 55%), mostly in non-managerial positions (53, 64%), whilst 22, 52% are employed within the consulting industry.

Participants completed an open-ended, electronic web-based questionnaire relating to their views of IOP as a profession (definition, roles and professional title of IOPs) as well as its differentiation from HRM. The questionnaire formed part of a larger study on the identity and well-being of IOPs within South Africa and contained sections relating to (1) personal demographics (e.g. age, gender, race, etc.), (2) professional demographics (e.g. years of registration, employment status), (3) self-report questionnaires (e.g. the mental health continuum) and (4) open-ended questions. The questionnaire was presented in English as it was assumed that individuals with a masters’ degree in industrial psychology would be proficient in the language. The open-ended questionnaire contained to following questions:

The questionnaire was uploaded to LimeSurvey™ and piloted with a small group of IOPs. Upon submission of each section, the survey was automatically saved on the distribution server. The data was securely submitted through a Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) connection to the server and the data was saved in a Structured Query Language (SQL) database for later retrieval. Cookies to the server were disabled, and Internet Protocol (IP) Addresses were automatically removed to ensure anonymity of participants. The data was then downloaded into a Microsoft Excel^® spreadsheet for further processing.

Creswell (2013) argued that the quality and integrity of the data should be ensured through a clearly established research objective and appropriate data analysis and/or collections methods. The methods employed to ensure integrity and quality data was guided by the provisions of (1) credibility, (2) trustworthiness, (3) transferability and (4) conformability (Coetzee & Van Zyl, 2014a).

Firstly, the questionnaire and research questions were developed and submitted to nine senior professors in the field of IOP for input. Secondly, the questionnaire was finalised and a pilot study of the questionnaire was launched. The questionnaire was administered to a small group of IOPs within Gauteng (n = 8) in order to determine the credibility and trustworthiness of the questionnaire and the obtained data. Thirdly, the questionnaire was uploaded to a server with SSL and SQL capabilities in order to ensure that data was obtained and stored securely. This was done to illuminate the possibility of survey bots, spam bots and hackers affecting the quality of the responses. Fourthly, a coding taxonomy was developed amongst the researchers in order to ensure consistency and conformity. Fifthly, Coetzee and Van Zyl (2014a) suggested that open communication between the research team continued through the analysis and coding process to address potential problems relating to the analysis. Sixthly, where disagreements relating to coding consistency and interpretation occurred, expert opinions were sought to resolve disputes by the research team (Van Coetzee & Van Zyl, 2014a). Seventhly, there was approximately 90% overlap between the researchers relating to the coding process, which is 20% higher than the suggested average percentage of agreement overlap of Miles and Huberman (1994). Finally, all the data has been stored for future scrutiny.

The data was downloaded in Microsoft Excel format and was processed through the use of content analysis (Creswell, 2013). Content analysis provides for the analysis of large amounts of ‘mute’ textual information to systematically identify or locate important properties of its content through structured categorisation (Creswell, 2013; Van Zyl, 2013b). This design is considered non-intrusive (Duriau et al., 2007) and highly flexible (Creswell, 2013), and the results can be replicated (Van Zyl, 2013b). Although, content analysis is still subjected to the limitations associated with traditional nominal-oriented measurement techniques (Salkind, 2012). The best practice guidelines outlined for content analyses were utilised in order to analyse the data and to determine primary themes (Chaichanasakul et al., 2011; Petticrew & Roberts, 2006; Whiston, Rose, Peterson & Nguyen, 2013).

Firstly, the data were cleaned through removing responses that were partial, or that contained irrelevant information (such as ‘….’ ‘don’t care’ ‘DFSSDADSAGdsgasd’ or blank responses, etc.). Secondly, a thorough overview of the data was compiled whereby the researchers read through the information to obtain a ‘general feel for the data’ (Creswell, 2013). Thirdly, primary themes were derived through clustering similar responses together by means of coding. Fourthly, the coding process was underpinned by co-coding whereby the primary researchers coded the data individually and (in)congruencies were discussed to establish the final themes.

Table 2 provides an overview of the findings which emerged from the question associated with the definition of IOP. The findings produced 12 congruent themes which imply a relatively shared conceptual definition for IOP amongst the participants.

Most participants believed that IOP involved ‘optimising individual, group, organisational and societal potential to improve performance/productivity and sustainability’ through ‘applying processes, methods, paradigms and principles of psychology at work’. A core theme associated with the conceptualisation of IOP within the South African context related to the ‘facilitation of well-being and general health’ through ‘working with people at work’. Participants also argued that IOPs are ‘specialists in human behaviour’ that ‘develops scientific theories’ relating to the world of work. Further, it also involved a function relating to the ‘integration of individuals into the world of work’ and facilitating the ‘enhancement of human resource policies and practices’. It was also indicated that IOP relates to the ‘diagnosis of problems within an organisation’ and ‘involves a professional registration with a professional body’. Finally, only one participant indicated that ethical behaviour forms part of IOP’s conceptualisation. One participant indicated that he and/or she was unsure as to how IOP should be defined.

Flowing from the conceptualisation of IOP emerges the self-perceived roles of the industrial psychologist. Themes associated with the role of the IOPs within South Africa which emerged from the data are presented in Table 3.

The findings indicated that the IOPs fulfil various roles within the organisational context. The majority of the individuals indicated that the primary role of the IOPs is that of a wellness facilitator, focusing on enhancing the overall well-being and general health of individuals within the organisation. Similarly, the IOPs fulfil a people development role which implies the optimal development of individuals and groups through adopting the role as counsellor, therapist, mentor and coach. Similarly, the participants indicated that another core role is associated with organisational development, which relates to assisting the organisation to grow and develop in order to enhance performance and productivity. This could be done through adopting a facilitator and/or advisor and/or consultant, strategist or change agent role. As a science-practitioner, the IOPs should be seen as behavioural specialists that can scientifically predict human behaviour of individuals, groups and teams within organisational contexts. Further, the IOPs function as business partners, usually within a managerial role, who aids in the alignment of strategic business objectives with employees (both management and subordinates) within organisational contexts. As such, the IOPs may adopt the role to enhance HR policies and practices. Similarly, the IOPs adopt a diagnostic and interventionist role in order to determine the root cause of problems within the organisation and design appropriate interventions to address these problems. They engage in psychometrics and assessments as part of their primary roles and acts as the watchdog and custodian of ethics within the organisation. Finally, they act as career developers and counsellors in order to facilitate individuals through the various career phases.

The professional designations or labels for IOP as presented by the participants are summarised in Table 4. The majority of the participants indicated that work psychology was deemed to be a more fitting professional designation than the traditional IOP.

Finally, the perceptual differences between HRM and IOP of registered industrial psychologists are presented in Table 5.

From the data it is evident that human resources main’ functions are administrative and process driven, involve transactional and operational functions and ensure compliance to processes and policies (governance). Further, human resources are perceived as being generalists with managerial functions who implement the strategies developed by the IOPs within an organisation.

In contrast, the IOPs are positioned in a conceptual or strategic, behavioural specialist role where his and/or her main functions are associated with the development of psychological strategies, systems, theories and methodologies to enhance individual, group and organisational performance. The IOPs also differ from HRM in relation to their focus on developing individuals and organisations (f = 19).

The first objective of the study related to conceptualising IOP from a South African industrial psychologists’ perspective. Our results indicated that IOP could be conceptually defined as: Both a discipline and a profession which relates to optimising individual, group, organisational and societal potential through developing or applying scientific theories, processes, methods, paradigms and principles of psychology at work in order to facilitate sustainable improvements in performance, productivity, well-being and general health. It is a specialised field of professional practice aimed at diagnosing, understanding, predicting and managing human behaviour within work contexts. It has to do with working with people, their integration into the world of work through enhancing human resource processes and practices in an ethical manner. Although elements of this conceptualisation are in line with those proposed by traditional (Benjamin, 2005; Van Tonder & Roodt, 2008; Van Zyl et al., 2010) and contemporary authors (Aamodt, 2015), it differs in relation to the focus and scope of the discipline and/or profession.

The findings suggest that IOP’s target audience has evolved from the traditional organisationally centred focus (individual and/or group and/or organisational view), towards an integrated, holistic (societal and/or community) perspective (Coetzee & Van Zyl, 2014b; Page, 2015). Given the predominant collectivistic culture within South Africa (Crafford, Adams, Saayman & Vinkenburg, 2015), IOPs may positively influence the performance of individuals with organisations through focusing interventions on the adjourning communities or society where employees’ families function (Eaton & Louw, 2000). This is in line with post-modern approaches towards systems thinking aimed at enhancing individual, and group performance within collectivistic social orientations (Aamodt, 2015).

Similarly, in contrast to both Benjamin (2005) and Van Zyl et al. (2010), the findings suggest that the IOP may have adopted a positive psychological, performance based scope. From this perspective, the focus seems to be on optimising individual, group and organisational performance, in contrast to solely focusing on what is proverbially ‘wrong’ within that context. Here strengths-based perspectives and approaches are highlighted, which supports the findings of Coetzee and Van Zyl (2014a) as well as Rothmann and Cooper (2015). As such, industrial psychology can be conceptualised as optimising the potential of individuals, groups, organisations and the community by implementing scientific processes with individual and organisational performance and wellness as outcomes, ensuring organisational sustainability (Rothmann & Cooper, 2015).

The second objective of the study related to the way IOPs perceive their work-roles. The majority of the participants indicated that the primary role of the IOPs is that of wellness facilitators. The traditional boundaries or scope of practice of the IOPs have expanded beyond the constraints of the organisation (Barkhuizen, Jorgensen & Brink, 2015), whereby the focus is on enhancing the overall level of personal well-being of an employee in order to address or prevent workplace problems. The IOPs as wellness facilitators may be tasked with the development, implementation and evaluation of employee assistance programmes or interventions aimed at assisting employees with personal and/or professional problems ranging from managing HIV and/or AIDS and burnout to facilitating optimal personal growth (Barkhuizen et al., 2015).

The people developer role which the IOPs may portray relates to the facilitation of optimal development of individuals and groups, supported by the counsellor, therapist, mentor and coach role. Here, the focus is on the personal and/or professional developmental needs of the individuals, as well as the function and/or role managing talent (Jorgensen, Van Zyl & Stander, 2016; Van Zyl & Stander, 2013). Not only is people development an integral part of talent management strategies, but also core to interventions associated with engaging and retaining talented people (Van Zyl & Stander, 2013). As such, this role encompasses the development and implementation of human potential development strategies aimed at the optimisation of individual, team and organisational strengths. In this context, the IOPs could adopt a strategic supportive, facilitating role, whereby the individual (or team) is guided and/or coached through a process of self-discovery and growth. Although not prominent within this project, within the broader people development role, the IOPs could also act as career developers and/or counsellors as an approach to aid professional development.

Flowing from the people development role, IOPs may also adopt an organisational developer role and change agent role. This role relates to processes and mechanisms that are implemented to facilitate organisational growth and development aimed at establishing sustainable performance (Rothmann & Cooper, 2015) as well as the management of the associative change process (Van Tonder & Roodt, 2008). Attributable to constant change within the global market, organisational transformation, innovation and development is a continuous process which requires active management. The IOPs could adopt various roles in the organisational development and change management process, however the focus pertains to the linkage of individual preferences and/or needs and/or strengths to organisational goals and/or objectives through a process of psychological re-engineering. As such, the IOPs could be tasked to diagnose organisational problems, influence organisational systems (processes and/or policies) and – culture and/or climate, in order to develop strategies to enhance organisational capabilities (Rothmann & Cooper, 2015; Van Tonder & Roodt, 2008).

The facilitator and/or advisor and/or consultant role as well as the behavioural specialist role is aimed at acting as an independent specialist in understanding, predicting and influencing human behaviour within organisational contexts. Here, the IOPs could act as an objective soundboard to the organisation, with specialised knowledge and/or expertise in human behaviour, with the aims of enhancing individual, team or organisational performance. In this role, particular attention is paid to human behavioural dynamics within the organisational eco-system in order to (1) develop hypothesis and potential solutions to complex problems, (2) to present findings and recommendations, (3) to support the execution of difficult interventions, and (4) to manage human dynamics in the process (Koppes, 2014).

Furthermore, the IOPs act as science-practitioners and organisational strategists. In these roles the focus pertains to the development, implementation and evaluation op psychological acts (e.g. psychometric instruments; coaching processes, etc.) that are valid, reliable, credible and transferable. The IOPs develop psychological processes and strategies based on the scientific-method, in order to enhance the success of the intervention. Further, he and/or she focuses on scientifically predicting individual, group and team behaviour within organisational contexts. As a strategist, the IOPs aid in the development of a roadmap or blueprint to aid the organisation in expanding their performance foot print (Koppes, 2014) through linking human dynamics, to organisational systems (Aamodt, 2015). As such, the IOPs could act as valuable business partners and confidants of the executives within the organisation in the future.

However, in contrast to previous research within the South African context (see Benjamin & Louw-Potgieter, 2008; Van Vuuren, 2010; Van Zyl et al., 2010), the IOPs may be less likely to want to engage in managerial roles or those associated with psychometric assessments, acting as watchdogs or custodians of ethics. This may be as a result of the change in scope and focus of traditional IOP work, as psychometrists are in an abundance within the South Africa context. IOPs are less likely to engage in the actual assessment process, but may function in a quality assurance and strategic role in this regard. Finally, they may be less likely to engage in activities associated with the enhancement of HR processes and practices as a primary role.

The third objective of the study was to determine the preferred professional designation (or ‘label’) for the IOP by practitioners. Although majority of the participants indicated that work psychology is a more fitting professional designation than the traditional IOPs, the wide variety of labels obtained in this study suggest the support the importance of this research. The concept of work psychology seems more appropriate within the South African context given the nature of the roles and associative tasks of the registered IOPs. The move away from IOP as a professional designation may relate to the historical definition attached to the word ‘industrial’ which stems from the industrial revolution. Furthermore, it is important to note that out of the 151 individuals who participated in this research project, less than a third completed (n = 43) this section. This may be left open to interpretation for the reader. As such, the vast differences in labels as well as the small response rate, indicates that the professional designation of the IOPs needs further investigation.

The final objective of the study was to differentiate between HRM and IOP from a registered South African industrial psychologists’ perspective. The IOPs are positioned as conceptual or strategic, behavioural specialists with the main focus on the development of psychological strategies, systems, theories and methodologies to enhance individual, group and organisational performance, whilst HRM is observed as administrative, processes driven, transactional with an operational function to ensure compliance to policies and procedures. There is a clear distinction between a more dynamic, pro-active approach (IOP) compared to the more transactional approach embodied by HRM. This is consistent with previous findings relating to the South African IOPs’ perspectives relating to the differentiation (see Benjamin, 2005; Moyo, 2012). However, the findings are somewhat in contrast to international research relating to the roles and functions of HRM (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014). Lussier and Hendon (2015) indicates that HRMs act in strategic or conceptual roles as the intended focus is on enhancing individual and organisational performance through aligning organisational strategies with human resources. Furthermore, HRM may also focus on employee well-being, and develop people within organisational roles (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014). Although not permitted in South Africa, human resource practitioners within the global market also utilises psychometric assessment measures as part of their recruitment practices without being ‘registered’ as psychologists (Berman, Bowman, West & Van Wart, 2015). Similarly, within the South African context, HRM also employs assessment centres, competency based assessments, behavioural observation and the like, to select best-fitting candidates. Albeit not psychometric in nature, this implies that they are also able to engage in similar assessment practices as IOPs. Therefore, one must be very cautious when dealing with these results as it is a one sided opinion.

This study was also presented with various limitations. The relatively small sample that completed the questionnaire is a definite limitation. The respondents are more representative of younger psychologist with 56% registered for less than 10 years. This can be an indication that the ‘more experienced’ IOPs feel that this is a well debated topic and they don’t want to make further contributions, or it is a case that the younger group are more willing and eager to clarify the identity. Similarly, the results may have been skewed relating to viewing the industrial psychologist as a wellness facilitator. The majority of the participants completed their master’s degrees at the NWU (22, 51%); a tertiary education institution known for its ‘wellness and well-being’ focus. This may have influenced the results. It is suggested that future research aim to draw a representative sample of IOPs from the various tertiary education institutions in order to reflect the current reality more accurately.

Further, it is recommended that the HPCSA follow the same process that the South African Board for People Practices (SABPP) followed to clarify roles, competencies and outcomes for setting professional standards for industrial-organisational psychology. Comparing these standards with that of the HRM profession will clarify the overlap and vagueness between the two professions. This can lead to national standards (aligned with international standards) that universities can apply in designing their programs. This should address most of the challenges identified in this research. By identifying the national standards there need to be one, clear, general definition of the profession. From this the professional distinction, title or label should be clarified. If all universities train their students to achieve the same outcomes and focus on the same practice domains industry, the community and academia will have a clear picture of what to expect from the profession or its members. This information should enable the HPCSA to improve the audit process for training institutions.

Some people may reason that this will limit universities competitive advantage. However, these authors are of the opinion that universities need to focus their competitive advantage and value-add on their way of delivering the content to get to the standards. We firmly belief that there must be at least certain minimum standards and outcomes that need to be met by all training institutions. SIOPSA should then, as SAICA for the accounting profession, play a strong governing, marketing and alignment role. It should be interesting to compare and benchmark universities curricula against the result of this research.

Although this research adds value to the academia and practitioners, this will definitely not be the last debate on the issues surrounding IOPs’ professional identity. Professional identity development should be seen as a dynamically fluid process, which evolves over time in order to ensure the relevance of both the IOP discipline and profession. Future processes to involve a wider audience and in depth discussion with all stake holders will be needed. This research underlines the important role that the IOPs play in individual and organisational performance and wellness. It can be expected that the role will become even more important in enhancing employee and organisational effectiveness.