Many industries have adopted the popular continuous improvement (CI) approach, lean manufacturing, to facilitate CI initiatives. However, several studies have confirmed that the low success rate of lean implementation can be attributed to the disproportionate focus on lean tools and techniques at the expense of the human factor, as expressed in the Respect for People (RFP) principles mentioned in lean literature.
To provide qualitative insight into the understanding and applicability of the Japanese RFP principles within the South African context.
An improved understanding of these RFP principles within the South African context can contribute to more successful lean implementations.
A phenomenological approach was followed to conduct the study in different South African industries. Purposive, expert sampling was used and 22 individuals took part in the exploratory discussions. Data analysis was performed using applied thematic analysis.
The South African participants identified all the Japanese RFP principles as applicable to the South African context. However, additional RFP themes were also identified, specifically job security and aligned commitment.
These findings are of importance to organisations planning to implement a Japanese-designed optimisation technique within a South African context. Organisations should pay attention to the original Japanese RFP themes and the additional RFP themes identified in this study.
This study contributes to the limited research available on lean manufacturing and the RFP principles within the South African context. New RFP themes are provided for organisations implementing a Japanese CI methodology within a South African context. The comparison of the understanding of the RFP themes in Japan and South Africa also contributes to the field of industrial psychology.
Lean manufacturing; respect for people; applied thematic analysis; thematic map; continuous improvement; Japanese.
Organisations are pressured to implement and adopt new continuous improvement (CI) approaches to enhance their efficiency and competitiveness (Kwahk & Lee,
During the 1980s, the automotive industry attracted attention when it became apparent that Japanese cars were lasting longer than American cars and required less maintenance (Liker,
Outside of Toyota, the TPS is known as ‘lean’ or ‘lean production’ (Liker,
The relationship between the social and technical components of a lean manufacturing system is complex and determines the overall system performance in the short and long term (Gaiardelli, Resta, & Dotti,
Toyota Way 2001.
It is clear from the pillars of the house that CI cannot be accomplished without RFP. Taiichi Ohno (
However, as Toyota expanded their operations throughout the world to countries such as South Africa, they encountered cultural challenges, as the Toyota Way is deeply rooted in the Japanese culture (Liker & Hoseus,
The RFP principles are key to making the lean management system work (Marksberry,
Several research studies also confirm that a contributing factor to the low levels of success for lean implementation is the disproportionate focus on lean tools and techniques at the expense of the human side of lean management (Bhasin,
This research issue can be addressed by exploring the principles and experiences of lean manufacturing within the South African context. Against this background, the following research questions were formulated:
Are all the Japanese RFP principles applicable to the South African context?
Are any additional RFP principles required for lean implementation to be successful within the South African context?
This article aims to provide insight into the understanding and applicability of the Japanese RFP principles within the South African context by means of qualitative research. The study adopted an exploratory approach to data collection and interpretation to explain how the human resources pillar must be applied as part of the overall lean manufacturing implementation.
The following literature review will provide more information on the Japanese-developed lean manufacturing approach to CI.
Before the RFP principles were investigated within the South African context, a literature review was conducted on the original RFP themes for lean implementation as developed by the Japanese creators. The literature review also explored the five-phase problem-solving process included in the Toyota Way and the eight forms of waste mentioned in lean literature.
As the study followed an inductive approach, the literature was consulted with caution in the early stages to prevent the researcher’s analytical field of vision from being narrowed (Braun & Clarke,
A big part of CI is to solve problems regularly. The Toyota Way refers to the following specific five-phase problem-solving process to address such problems (Womack,
The first step is for the manager to ask the employee about the problem that the employee is experiencing to determine the ‘real’ problem, not just the ‘surface’ problem.
The employee is then asked what causes the problem to determine the root cause. The employee should provide evidence from the actual workplace to be investigated in collaboration with the manager.
The employee is then asked to propose a solution and provide a reason for the specific solution as opposed to other alternatives.
The employee is also asked how they (the employer and employee) will know that the problem is solved. How can it be monitored?
Once an agreement is reached on the correct course of action, the employee implements it.
This problem-solving process represents the highest form of respect (Emiliani,
Within the lean context, the term ‘waste’ is attributed to all meaningless, non-essential activities that do not add value to the product and that can be eliminated immediately in order to improve an organisation’s productivity (Liker,
Transportation: Material and parts that are moved around without adding value to the product.
Inventory: Anything that is beyond what is required by the customer negatively influences cash flow and wastes valuable floor space.
Motion: Examples of unnecessary movement include looking for something, reaching for something and general walking around.
Waiting: Waiting includes waiting for material, information, equipment tools, etc.
Over-production: Producing anything more than what is required by the customer.
Over-processing: Examples of non-value-added processing include reworking and inspection.
Defect: Any product that does not conform to customer requirements.
Underutilisation of employee’s creativity: People are the most important asset of any organisation. Therefore, an organisation should engage people’s minds (not just their bodies) in CI.
Respect for People is a broad commitment. ‘It means respect for all people, touched by Toyota including employees, customers, investors, suppliers, dealers, the communities in which Toyota has operations and society at large’ (Liker & Hoseus,
Coetzee, Van Dyk and Van der Merwe (
The original Japanese Respect for People themes.
Theme | Sub-themes | Quotation |
---|---|---|
Individual development | (1) Value of people | Ensure people feel appreciated as individuals (Cardon & Bribiescas, |
(2) Worker’s input | Create a system through which they can provide ideas (Cardon & Bribiescas, Encourage employees to provide ideas on how to improve their work and workplace (Husar, Respect not only a person’s physical abilities but also their minds and experience (Liker, |
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(3) Motivate people | Set challenging targets for them (Liker, Put constant measurements in place to track progress (Liker, Provide regular in-progress feedback (Liker, Ensure people feel appreciated as individuals (Cardon & Bribiescas, Create a system where workers can take part in making improvements (Sugimori, Kusunoki, Cho, & Uchikawa, Implement a reward system for taking part in the process (Liker, |
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(4) Develop people | Improve employees’ skills and abilities (Cardon & Bribiescas, Develop employees’ problem identification and solving abilities (Liker & Hoseus, Teach employees multi-level skills such as problem-solving and group development (Husar, Develop employee’ ability to think and execute tasks as efficiently as possible (Husar, Stimulate personal and professional growth (Liker & Hoseus, Challenge employees’ abilities (Liker & Hoseus, Create opportunities for personal development (Liker & Hoseus, |
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(5) Training | Provide training on the lean philosophy (Liker, Provide training on safety issues (Liker & Hoseus, Provide training on job-related tasks (Cardon & Bribiescas, |
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(6) Employee responsibilities | Display people’s capabilities by entrusting them with more responsibility and authority (Marksberry, Assign new and challenging tasks (Liker, Give employees autonomy so that they feel that they have control over the job (Liker, Give employees the right to stop the production line when they cannot keep up or detect an error, as it is not the conveyer that operates men, it is rather the men who should operate the conveyer (Sugimori et al., Empower employees to participate in managing and improving their workplaces (Puvanasvaran et al., Delegate decisions to people (such as job dispatching and overtime) (Sugimori et al., |
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Group development | (7) Communication | Establish dialogues that reach a true level of communication that is followed by cooperation and consideration (Kato, Ensure sufficient communication during the problem-solving process (Womack, |
(8) Teamwork | Implement teamwork as the foundation of the organisation (Liker, Maximise individual and team performance (Liker & Hoseus, Create a balance between individual excellence and team effectiveness (Liker, Instil a feeling of self-importance in employees (Marksberry, |
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(9) Employee relationships | Promote employee relationships by ensuring mutual trust and respect (Emiliani, |
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Organisational development | (10) Safety | Assess people’s safety in their daily tasks by reducing/eliminating tasks that are:
Dangerous (Sugimori et al., Injurious to their health (Sugimori et al., Physically strenuous (Sugimori et al., |
(11) Waste reduction | Remove the following forms of waste from people’s daily tasks:
Defects – people required to rectify mistakes (Liker, Over-production – people producing items no one wants (Liker, Excess inventory – people handling inventories and goods that pile up (Liker, Over-processing – people performing processing steps that are unnecessary (Liker, Unnecessary motion – people moving around (Liker, Unnecessary transportation – people moving goods from one place to another without any purpose (Liker, Waiting – people in downstream activities waiting because upstream activities have not been delivered on time (Liker, Unused employee creativity – people performing monotonous, repetitive operations that can be mechanised, automated and unmanned (Liker, |
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(12) Problem-solving process | Implement the five-phase problem-solving process (Womack, Ensure engagement and cooperation of everyone (from top to bottom) in solving problems (Puvanasvaran et al., Ensure sincere efforts to cooperate (Womack, Ensure mutual consideration and understanding for other people’s positions (Kato, Implement learning and teaching as a continuous company-wide process (Liker & Hoseus, |
In order to incorporate the Toyota Way, during a lean implementation, the RFP and CI principles (pillars) need to be followed. The RFP principles were elaborated on, as well as two CI aspects of the Toyota Way, the five-phase problem-solving process and the eight forms of waste.
Following this review of the Japanese literature, the following section explains the research design that was followed to investigate the RFP within the South African context.
A qualitative research approach was followed to understand how people make sense of the world and how they experience the research questions at hand (Willig,
Qualitative, in-depth interviews were conducted in South Africa to obtain data on the South African perspective on the Japanese RFP principles. As these principles are incorporated in different South African industries (not just the automotive industry), interviews were conducted over a range of different industries, such as health care, precious metals, aviation and manufacturing industries, as well as the academic environment.
The researchers contacted the potential participants by emailing a request for an appointment that would be convenient for them. The email was sent to personal acquaintances of the researchers and therefore the response rate was positive.
The researchers planned the study by contacting the participants and arranging the interviews, as well as conducting the interviews and analysing the data. A research assistant was appointed to assist with taking field notes.
The sampling of this qualitative study involved purposive, expert sampling with a relatively small sample size (Trochim & Donnelly,
Characteristic of the sample.
Item | Category | Frequency | % |
---|---|---|---|
Industry | Automotive | 9 | 40.9 |
Cable manufacturing | 1 | 4.5 | |
Precious metals | 1 | 4.5 | |
Lean institutions | 1 | 4.5 | |
Health care | 1 | 4.5 | |
Aviation | 2 | 9.1 | |
Steel manufacturing | 1 | 4.5 | |
Academia | 6 | 27.3 | |
Organisational level | Lecturer | 5 | 22.7 |
Professor | 1 | 4.5 | |
Manager | 11 | 50.0 | |
Senior manager | 2 | 9.1 | |
Executive manager | 1 | 4.5 | |
Chairman | 1 | 4.5 | |
Chief executive officer | 1 | 4.5 | |
Education level | Bachelor’s degree | 6 | 27.3 |
B.Tech | 4 | 18.2 | |
Diploma | 1 | 4.5 | |
Master’s degree | 5 | 22.7 | |
Doctoral degree | 6 | 27.3 | |
Experience level | >1–10 years | 3 | 13.6 |
11–20 years | 10 | 45.5 | |
21–30 years | 5 | 22.7 | |
31–40 years | 3 | 13.6 | |
41–50 years | 1 | 4.5 | |
Province in South Africa | Eastern Cape | 13 | 59.1 |
Western Cape | 1 | 4.5 | |
North West | 2 | 9.1 | |
Gauteng | 6 | 27.3 |
A total of 31 individual, exploratory discussions were conducted with a panel of 22 participants. At the start of each interview, the participant was provided with a summary of the RFP principles, as developed by Coetzee et al. (
Do you think all the RFP principles, as developed by the Japanese creators, are applicable to the South African context?
Are any additional RFP principles required for lean implementation to be successful within the South African context?
There was no time limit for the interviews. Participants were allowed to discuss any issues or themes as they emerged from the conversation. Interviews varied from 30 min to 2 h, the average being 1 h.
Any ambiguity that was identified from the transcripts afterwards was clarified with the participants via email or phone calls after the interviews. In some cases, participants made references to internal company documents or procedures without discussing them in detail during the interviews. Permission to see these documents was then requested afterwards via email.
A total of 22.5 h of interviews were recorded. The interviews were transcribed to ensure that all information was noted for subsequent analysis of the correct meanings and subtleties of the participants’ responses. The transcription was done by the researchers and by a professional transcriber and verified by the researchers. More than 450 pages of data were produced from the verbatim transcription process.
The researcher and the assistant took field notes as an additional source. Where the purpose of the transcripts was to capture the verbatim interviews, the field notes were used to record subtler observations, such as body language, facial expression and tone of voice – the ‘feeling’ of the interview.
For the purpose of this study, the term validity refers to the credibility and accuracy of the process and the outcomes associated with the research (Guest et al.,
During the data collection, the voice recordings were transcribed verbatim in order to ensure a rigorous and systematic analysis (Guest et al.,
During the analysis phase, validity was enhanced through the triangulation of the data sources (Guest et al.,
During the reporting phase, quotes were used as much as possible (without creating a string of raw text), as they bring the raw data, the participants’ own words, to the reader and connect the phenomenological world of the participants with the data summary and interpretation generated by the researcher (Guest & MacQueen,
An inductive analysis of the data was performed with a descriptive and exploratory orientation (Guest et al.,
The purpose of the ATA method was to analyse the data thematically in a systematic way to report patterns (themes) within the data (Braun & Clarke,
Contrary to word-based analysis, the thematic analysis required involvement and interpretation from the researcher. Similar to grounded theory and the development of cultural models, thematic analysis moves beyond counting explicit words or phrases and rather focusses on identifying and describing both implicit and explicit ideas within the data (themes) (Braun & Clarke,
In an effort to ensure a high standard with regard to ethics, participation in the study was entirely voluntary and participants could withdraw at any point during or after the interview. Research participants were informed upfront of the research aims and that information would only be used for research purposes. The data remained confidential and no participants are named in this article. The interviews were not unnecessarily long or intrusive and no questions were sensitive or offensive in nature (Renard & Snelgar,
An ATA was performed. Patterns emerged from the data collected and these were used to generate sub-themes. These sub-themes were grouped into themes according to the context within which they appeared in the transcripts: (1) individual development – sub-themes pertaining to the development of people, (2) group development – sub-themes pertaining to the improvement of interaction between people and (3) organisational development – sub-themes relevant to the improvement of the organisation as a whole (
Thematic map of the South African Respect for People themes and sub-themes.
Themes | Sub-themes |
---|---|
(1) Individual development | Importance of workers |
Workers’ input | |
Motivation and buy-in | |
Development/empowerment of people | |
Training responsibility, authority and accountability | |
(2) Group development | Communication |
Teamwork | |
Employee relationship | |
(3) Organisational development | Waste reduction |
Ergonomics and safety | |
Job security | |
Aligned commitment | |
Organisational problem-solving process |
Before a lean implementation can commence, the leadership of the organisation should realise the
‘And that is what I say, where respect for people comes in, because the first thing that we did, was tell them that they are important since it is them that are doing the job. Not the directors or the business unit managers. They do the work, they see the problems.’ (Participant 02-20, Lecturing Professor)
Participant 01-05 explained that many of the initiatives that managers try fail because they do not value the people side. He considers changing the thinking of managers as the bigger challenge. Participant 02-18 agreed that lean implementation is not something that will just happen by itself:
‘They can try it as many times as they like, if that respect for people element is not present, it will fail. Respect for people should be central.’ (Participant 01-05, HR Manager)
Participant 02-20 realised the difference and importance of both management and workers. He explained that although there are differences in salaries, both parties are equally important, as the worker cannot exist without management and
‘… and that is where respect for humanity starts – with the people.’ (Participant 01-07, Senior Manager)
Once management has realised the importance of people in the organisation,
Participant 01-07 explained that management should not only respect a person’s physical abilities but also his mind and experience:
‘It is actually considered disrespectful if we do not give you an opportunity to use your experience to solve problems. Respect for man is much bigger than just using a person’s motor skills. We need to use his mind as well as his experience, we need to use all five his senses.’ (Participant 01-07, Senior Manager)
Once the importance of people and their input has been established, it will be easier for workers to have
‘The RFP pillar is absolutely spot-on, since one cannot do a lean implementation if you do not have employees’ buy-in.’ (Participant 01-02, Plant Manager)
Participant 02-20 agrees:
‘If changes are forced upon people, they will find a way to sabotage it.’ (Participant 02-20, Lecturing Professor)
‘Therefore, buy-in is required from the workers, management and the workers’ unions in order for lean implementation to be successful.’ (Participant 01-07, Senior Manager)
Furthermore, for
‘… for building the capabilities to enable people to realise their full potential at work.’ (Participant 01-11, Lean Institute Africa)
The RFP is in:
‘I am here to develop you as part of my management responsibility.’ (Participant 01-11, Lean Institute Africa)
Participant 01-11 was very specific on a certain element of employee development:
‘The idea of respect for people comes out in a very deep commitment to develop the subordinate. Now this is the role of the manager, in a tiered fashion, to develop the problem-solving or, in the western world we might use the terminology decision-making capabilities, of people as part of your responsibility as manager.’ (Participant 01-11, Lean Institute Africa)
‘So, training is crucial to get this Respect for People off the ground.’ (Participant 01-07, Senior Manager)
Once employees have been developed, trained and empowered as individuals, it becomes possible to further show respect by authorising the employee with greater
‘Respect is where you tell the people on the shop floor that they have the right to stop the production line. And management does not go down and shout at them and ask what they have done. They ask what is wrong, what did you see happen?’ (Participant 02-20, Lecturing Professor)
‘The advantage of doing this is that people feel that they have ownership and then they improve and develop further, better than most other people. You cannot expect to give people responsibility if you do not develop them.’ (Participant 02-15, General Manager)
Respect for people is shown in how people
If you are not able to communicate with people, respect people and come to the level of the people and be humble and understand people’s problems, you are not going to get anywhere.
The participants explained that RFP is also shown by means of
‘We respect the fact that you might have to take a day off because you are sick, or your wife is sick and that is where teamwork comes in. Then the people that are with you in a team must be trained to do your job as well.’ (Participant 01-07, Senior Manager)
Communication and teamwork are used to build
‘Respect for people… no matter whether it is a sweeper or the CEO, the respect is there for everybody. So only by speaking to people and getting to know them is it possible to build relationships. Often, human beings judge other people by just looking at them and then making assumptions. But if you do not speak… If you speak and get to know what they are all about and what they are doing, it breaks the ice and they become familiar.’ (Participant 02-19, Senior Lecturer)
For organisational development,
‘It is considered disrespectful if I let you work too hard physically, un-ergonomically.’ (Participant 01-07, Senior Manager)
Lean literature explains eight forms of waste (refer to Literature Review). Although these principles mostly pertain to the technical production side,
‘You are disrespectful towards someone if you let him stand and do nothing – idle time. But also, the waste of it – you are paying him, and he is not doing anything. That is considered disrespectful.’ (Participant 01-07, Senior Manager)
Furthermore, participant 01-09 explained that people should never lose their jobs because of a lean implementation. Contrary to the original lean culture of RFP, productivity improvements in South Africa often lead to unemployment. This approach to CI extinguishes the remaining employees’ enthusiasm about participating in future improvement activities and, consequently, the pace of improvement is reduced. A lean organisation should rather provide
‘Ja, and I see as result of this ‘lean thing’, nobody has lost their job yet … This is great man, let’s participate. You know, so that is why these types of initiatives … it’s very good because it’s covering all of the aspects of respect and trust.’ (Participant 01-09, Manager)
Lean implementation can only be successful if there is
‘RFP is about respecting the total human being, because we have the same goal. If we respect each other as colleagues, as co-workers, then we respect each other in such a manner that causes progress for the workers, but also for the organisation.’ (Participant 01-07, Senior Manager)
The final sub-theme for organisational development is the
‘So that is why these types of initiatives, problem-solving specifically, it’s very good because it’s covering all of the aspects of respect and trust.’ (Participant 01-09, Manager)
The aim of this article was to report on a qualitative study into the understanding and applicability of the Japanese RFP principles within the South African context by means of the following research questions:
Are all the Japanese RFP principles applicable to the South African context?
Are any additional RFP principles required for lean implementations to be successful within the South African context?
The original Japanese RFP themes were stated in the section titled ‘Respect for People principles’. The RFP themes identified by South African participants during the interviews were explained in the ‘Findings’ section. In order to answer the research questions, the original Japanese RFP themes are compared to the themes identified by the South African participants (
Comparison between Japanese Respect for People principles and South African Respect for People principles.
Themes | Japanese sub-themes | South African sub-themes |
---|---|---|
Individual development | Value of people | Value of people |
Worker’s input | Workers’ input | |
Motivate people | Motivation and buy-in | |
Develop people | Development/empowerment of people | |
Training | Training | |
Employee responsibilities | Employee responsibilities | |
Group development | Communication | Communication |
Teamwork | Teamwork | |
Employee relationships | Employee relationships | |
Organisational development | Safety | Ergonomics and safety |
Waste reduction | Waste reduction | |
Problem-solving process | Job security | |
- | Aligned commitment | |
- | Organisational problem-solving process |
For individual and group development, all the Japanese themes were identified by the South African participants. However, for organisational development, two additional themes were added by the South African participants that did not form part of the original Japanese RFP themes, namely –
The answer to this study’s first research question is that all the Japanese RFP principles were identified by the South African participants and are therefore applicable to the South African context. The answer to the second research question is that additional RFP themes are required for successful lean implementation within the South African context and for employees to feel respected.
This study’s findings draw attention to the fact that cultural differences have an impact on lean implementation. In the book,
These findings are of importance to organisations planning to implement a Japanese optimisation technique within a South African context. Attention should be given to the original Japanese RFP themes and the additional RFP themes that were identified by the South African participants: Providing job security to employees prior to lean implementation and ensuring aligned commitment between the organisation, employees and unions by means of realising the importance of people and valuing their input.
Consequently, incorporating the correct RFP principles within a context outside of Japan, such as South Africa, will increase the possibility of successful lean implementation.
A possible limitation to this study could be the sample size. Although the aim was to describe the range of variability and not the distribution across a general population, it could be possible that a larger sample could provide richer data on the South African context.
Although this study focussed on a broad range of different industries in South Africa, it is recommended that future research should be expanded to more industries in South Africa. Furthermore, this article focussed on the primary manufacturing provinces of South Africa. It could be beneficial for future research to include all the provinces.
In addition, this study focusses on the organisational levels of management and higher. Including the opinions of the lower levels, such as shop floor workers, could add further valuable insights with regard to RFP in the workplace.
This study has provided insight into lean implementation within the South African context. All the Japanese RFP themes are required for the South African context, but additional themes are also required. South Africans require job security prior to a lean implementation and they believe aligned commitment between employees, company and unions is required for successful lean implementation.
This study provides South African companies with the required RFP themes to implement a Japanese CI methodology within another context. The article contributes to the field of industrial psychology by comparing the understanding of RFP themes in Japan and South Africa.
The focus of further research should be on combining the South African RFP themes with the Japanese RFP themes in an RFP lean implementation model for the South African context.
Financial assistance of Technology and Human Resources for Industry Programme (THRIP), in partnership with Denel Aeronautics, a Division of Denel SOC Ltd, towards this research is hereby acknowledged.
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at in this article are those of the authors and are not necessarily to be attributed to the THRIP or Denel SOC Ltd.
This manuscript forms part of R.C.’s PhD thesis, and as such, this author took the lead in the research and the writing of the manuscript. C.J., K.V.D.M and L.V.D. were co-promoters and provided conceptual input and guidance in the structuring and writing of the manuscript.