Abstract
Orientation: The well-being of employees is essential for the sustainability of an organisation; however, current models frequently neglect the significant connection between individual resources and organisational culture. The SALCOR framework integrates the salutogenic model with conservation of resources (COR) theory to effectively address these limitations through a comprehensive, resilience-focused approach.
Research purpose: The purpose of this research is to present and evaluate the theoretical foundations of the SALCOR framework, illustrating its capacity to integrate disparate well-being strategies and improve organisational outcomes.
Motivation for the study: The ongoing fragmentation in workplace well-being models, along with the lack of adequate integration between personal and organisational dynamics, calls for a comprehensive framework. The SALCOR framework effectively addresses these gaps by aligning health resources with the organisational culture.
Research approach/design and method: A conceptual framework development methodology, incorporating systematic theoretical analysis, was applied to explore the dynamic interaction between salutogenesis and COR theory in optimising employee well-being.
Main findings: The SALCOR framework demonstrates that combining COR theory’s resource optimisation with salutogenesis’s sense of coherence significantly enhances resilience and overall well-being, particularly in resource-intensive or high-stress organisational environments.
Practical/managerial implications: The framework offers actionable insights for organisations to develop integrated strategies that enhance resource alignment and coherence, promoting sustainable employee resilience in various workplace environments.
Contribution/value-add: This study presents a new framework in Industrial and Organisational Psychology, addressing significant theoretical and practical gaps by promoting a comprehensive and adaptable approach to employee well-being.
Keywords: conservation of resources; employee resilience; employee well-being; organisational culture; SALCOR framework; salutogenic model; workplace well-being.
Introduction
Amid growing concerns regarding workplace stress, burnout and employee disengagement, organisations are placing greater emphasis on employee well-being as a fundamental aspect of sustainability and success. Research consistently indicates that positive employee well-being greatly improves productivity, engagement, retention and workplace morale (Bella, 2023; Sonnentag et al., 2023). However, despite significant progress in well-being research, current models frequently overlook the complex connection between individual resilience and organisational resources, which is essential for promoting sustainable well-being in changing workplace environments (Boccoli et al., 2023; Chan et al., 2022; Guest, 2020). The SALCOR framework, developed by the author, provides a transformative approach to address this gap by combining Antonovsky’s salutogenic model with Hobfoll’s (1989) conservation of resources (COR) theory. This unique integration offers an extensive understanding of employee well-being by integrating personal resilience with strategic management of organisational resources. The independent contributions of both theories to well-being research are significant; however, their combined application provides distinct insights into the mechanisms that support resilience and well-being over time.
The salutogenic model highlights the significance of a strong sense of coherence (SOC), which allows individuals to cope with stress by utilising personal and social resources (Antonovsky, 2022; Lindström & Eriksson, 2019). At the same time, COR theory emphasises the importance of resource preservation as a key factor in well-being, suggesting that individuals flourish when they can safeguard, utilise and maintain resources in response to stressors (Hobfoll et al., 1990).
Current models often separate these dimensions, frequently overlooking the dynamic interaction between individual coping mechanisms and organisational contexts. The SALCOR framework addresses this limitation by offering a cohesive perspective that aligns individual resilience with organisational resource strategies. This approach enables organisations to implement focused and effective interventions that improve workplace well-being and tackle challenges such as burnout and elevated turnover rates.
This article explores the theoretical foundations of the SALCOR framework, its integration of SOC and COR theory and its practical applications in promoting resilient employees and sustainable well-being. This framework offers practical insights for researchers and practitioners in Industrial and Organisational Psychology, highlighting its potential for establishing health-promoting work environments. The SALCOR framework connects personal and organisational aspects, serving as a transformative model for enhancing research and practice in workplace well-being.
Literature review
The salutogenic model
The salutogenic model, developed by Antonovsky in 1979, shifts the emphasis from conventional deficit-based models to exploring the elements that enhance health and well-being, highlighting resilience and the management of stress. A key concept in this model is the SOC, which denotes an individual’s ability to perceive life as structured, manageable and meaningful (Antonovsky, 1987). The SOC consists of three dimensions: comprehensibility, which refers to understanding life’s challenges; manageability, which refers to the availability of resources to cope with stress; and meaningfulness, which involves finding purpose in challenges. Research indicates that SOC is significantly associated with enhanced mental health and well-being, as it allows individuals to manage stressors more effectively (Antonovsky, 1987; Eriksson, 2022; Michele Masanotti et al., 2020). Nevertheless, SOC has certain limitations in its application, particularly about its understanding of the intricate relationship between individual perceptions and organisational factors. The model emphasises the significance of individual resilience; however, it tends to neglect the structural and environmental factors that affect well-being, including organisational resources and cultural contexts. In response to this challenge, researchers have progressively combined the SOC with various theoretical frameworks (Abe, 2015; Roth, 2019; Storheim, 2024), including the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). This model highlights the interaction between job resources, such as social support and autonomy, and job demands, such as workload and time pressure, in influencing employee well-being (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Combining the SOC with the JD-R model allows for a more thorough understanding of how resources, both personal and organisational, can either reduce or intensify stress and well-being (Derbis & Jasiński, 2018; Paterson et al., 2024; Vogt et al., 2016). In a similar manner, positive psychology frameworks that emphasise the development of positive states like optimism, hope and gratitude provide an additional approach to enhance the salutogenic model (Coetzee & Viviers, 2007; Mayer & May, 2019; Sagy et al., 2015). These frameworks enhance the SOC by offering a perspective to examine the resources that contribute to well-being, including positive emotions and strengths. The integration of SOC with positive psychology facilitates an increased understanding of how individuals leverage their personal strengths and positive experiences to improve their ability to manage adversity.
Conservation of resources theory
The COR theory, proposed by Hobfoll (1989), serves as a significant complement to the salutogenic model by emphasising the acquisition, maintenance and protection of resources. The COR theory suggests that stress develops when individuals recognise a loss of resources or perceive a potential threat to these resources. Resources can be classified into three categories: object resources, which include material goods; personal resources, such as self-esteem and resilience; and social resources, which include social support. According to the COR theory, individuals who acquire and preserve resources are more capable of managing stress, which in turn improves their overall well-being (Hobfoll et al., 1990). Although the COR theory effectively clarifies the relationship between resource loss and stress, it has faced criticism for not adequately addressing the processes through which resources can be acquired or restored over time. This gap can be resolved by integrating COR with frameworks such as the JD-R model. The JD-R model emphasises the role of job resources in mitigating the adverse effects of job demands, thereby offering a deeper insight into the dynamics of resources within organisations (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Bakker et al., 2023a). Furthermore, self-determination theory by Deci and Ryan (1985), which highlights the significance of autonomy, competence and relatedness, may be combined with COR to investigate how employees’ intrinsic motivations influence their resource utilisation and stress management.
Integrating SOC and conservation of resources in the SALCOR framework
The integration of SOC and COR within the SALCOR framework combines these two theories to develop a more dynamic and comprehensive model of workplace well-being. The SALCOR framework suggests that an individual’s SOC interacts with the resources at their disposal, affecting their capacity to handle stress and sustain well-being. Sense of coherence provides a framework for individuals to understand their resources, whereas COR explains the way resources are utilised and preserved in reaction to stressors within organisational settings. The SALCOR framework presents the concept of feedback loops, where the availability or depletion of resources influences an individual’s SOC, which subsequently affects their resource requirements and coping mechanisms (Fukuda & Fukuda, 2022; Kupcewicz, 2022). For instance, when employees believe they possess sufficient resources, including managerial support or social connections, they indicate a higher SOC, which aids in effective stress management (Michele Masanotti et al., 2020). On the other hand, when resources are exhausted – such as when workloads increase without sufficient support – SOC decreases, rendering employees more susceptible to stress and burnout (Fukuda & Fukuda, 2022; Michele Masanotti et al., 2020). Additional research is required to examine how these resource dynamics develop over time. A more detailed investigation into how resource gain, rather than resource loss, affects the development of SOC could provide valuable insights into how organisations can improve well-being by creating environments that promote the restoration of personal and organisational resources.
The role of organisational culture and support in the SALCOR framework
The organisational culture is essential to the SALCOR framework, as it influences the resources accessible to employees (Akdere & Egan, 2020; Nguyen et al., 2020). An organisational culture that is supportive promotes trust, cooperation and open communication, which in turn improves access to personal and social resources (Ajayi & Udeh, 2024). On the other hand, insufficient organisational support results in resource depletion, which reduces SOC and increases stress. This is especially pertinent in high-stress settings like healthcare, where the organisational culture directly influences resource availability and employees’ capacity to manage stress (Nguyen et al., 2020). Effective leadership plays a crucial role in coordinating resources within the SALCOR framework. Transformational leadership, which focuses on vision, empowerment and inspiration, can improve employees’ sense of SOC by creating a feeling of meaning and coherence in their work (Akdere & Egan, 2020). Furthermore, effective leadership can guarantee that employees are provided with the essential resources to manage stress efficiently, thereby minimising the risk of burnout (Ajayi & Udeh, 2024; Akdere & Egan, 2020; Maslach & Leiter, 2022).
Research gaps and future directions
The SALCOR framework provides valuable insights into employee well-being; however, there are notable gaps in the existing literature that require further investigation. For example, research could investigate how the framework is applicable in various cultural contexts beyond healthcare. Cultural factors can affect how resources are perceived and utilised, and recognising such distinctions is essential to developing culturally appropriate interventions. Furthermore, various organisational structures, such as those found in the corporate sector compared to public service, may influence resource dynamics and the connection between SOC and well-being. Comparative studies across various sectors may offer valuable insights into the way different work environments affect the effectiveness of the SALCOR framework. Another significant area for future research is the role of technology in resource mobilisation, especially in remote or hybrid work environments where conventional forms of organisational support, such as direct supervisor interactions, may be less available. Examining the role of digital tools, including online support networks and well-being applications, in supplementing or replacing face-to-face support may enhance the relevance of the SALCOR framework in contemporary work environments. By addressing these gaps, future research can enhance the application of the framework, ensuring its adaptability and effectiveness across various organisational and cultural contexts.
Methodological considerations
Research on SOC and COR theory has primarily utilised quantitative methods, including surveys and questionnaires, to evaluate employee well-being and resource management (Bakker et al., 2004; Hobfoll et al., 1990; Mayer et al., 2021; Tran, 2019). The approaches discussed have offered important insights into the relationships among SOC, resource management and organisational outcomes, especially regarding measurable factors such as stress and job satisfaction. However, they frequently do not capture the subjective, lived experiences of employees, especially regarding how they perceive and utilise resources in dynamic, high-pressure work environments. Moreover, these methods often fail to consider the context-specific details of the interactions between SOC and resources in various organisational settings (Bartram, 2021; Mercer, 2023). To overcome these limitations, it is recommended to utilise qualitative research methods, such as in-depth interviews and focus groups. These methods enable researchers to examine the detailed, context-dependent experiences of employees, providing a more profound understanding of how SOC affects resource allocation, stress management and coping strategies in the workplace (Chidi et al., 2024; Micklitz et al., 2021; Nzinga et al., 2021; Scheuch et al., 2021). Qualitative approaches are especially effective in capturing the complexities of resource management across various organisational cultures and environments. They offer a more comprehensive understanding of the interaction between SOC and employee well-being in real-world contexts. Furthermore, qualitative methods can uncover differences in resource requirements among various roles and organisational settings, allowing for the design of tailored, contextually appropriate interventions (Creswell & Poth, 2016).
While qualitative approaches provide a wealth of data, they also have their limitations. Qualitative research is frequently regarded as resource intensive and subjective, necessitating significant time and effort for data collection and analysis (Creswell & Poth, 2016). A mixed-methods design that combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches can address these concerns, providing a thorough understanding of the dynamic relationship between SOC, resource mobilisation and employee well-being. Mixed-methods designs offer a comprehensive examination of how SOC and resources interact to affect employee well-being by integrating the precision of quantitative data with the depth of qualitative narratives (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2023). This integration enables researchers to measure objective outcomes and to investigate personal and contextual factors that influence employee resilience. The mixed-methods approach enhances the empirical basis for creating interventions that consider both measurable outcomes and the personal experiences that affect employee resilience (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2023).
Research design
This study employs a theoretical research design that integrates the salutogenic model and COR theory to develop the SALCOR framework. This multidimensional framework seeks to enhance the understanding of employee well-being, resilience and resource management by incorporating essential theoretical perspectives on employee well-being, thereby improving its relevance across various organisational contexts (Antonovsky, 1987; Hobfoll, 1989). The SALCOR framework highlights the active interaction between personal perceptions of life (SOC) and organisational resources (COR), which together affect an individual’s stress management, coping strategies and overall well-being.
The SALCOR framework integrates the advantages of SOC and COR, providing a solid basis for understanding how employees handle stress and utilise resources in reaction to workplace challenges. Sense of coherence highlights an individual’s perception of their ability to handle stress and sustain an SOC, whereas COR theory highlights the essential importance of external resources – such as social support, organisational practices and environmental factors – in supporting employee coping and resilience (Antonovsky, 1987; Hobfoll, 1989). The combination of these two theories offers a thorough perspective for analysing employee well-being in the organisational setting. The relationship between SOC and COR can be viewed as a dynamic process: SOC affects how an individual perceives stressors, whereas COR theory illustrates how available resources mitigate these stressors, aiding the individual in sustaining a SOC. This relationship can be represented as a cyclical model, in which resources serve as both a product of and a contributor to an individual’s SOC. This creates a feedback loop that enhances both personal resilience and organisational outcomes. This integration also seeks to address various gaps in the current research. Much of the current research has concentrated on individual or organisational resources separately. The SALCOR framework positions these resources in an interactive relationship, highlighting the importance of both personal perceptions and external support systems in influencing well-being outcomes. Future empirical studies should investigate this interaction more thoroughly, especially within various cultural and organisational contexts; for instance, how SOC and COR might operate differently in sectors with distinct organisational structures, such as corporate and public service sectors. Furthermore, the SALCOR framework provides a distinct opportunity to examine how the interaction between SOC and COR affects employee resilience in high-stress, resource-limited settings, such as healthcare, an area that has not been thoroughly investigated in existing research.
Empirical testing and methodological considerations
The SALCOR framework, although theoretically sound, needs empirical validation to assess its effectiveness and applicability across various organisational contexts. Future research should employ a mixed-methods approach to assess its applicability. A quantitative approach that employs surveys and questionnaires will facilitate the measurement of essential variables associated with SOC, COR and well-being outcomes, such as job satisfaction, employee engagement and turnover rates. Surveys should be carried out across various sectors to evaluate the applicability of the SALCOR framework in different organisational contexts. At the same time, qualitative research methods, including in-depth interviews and focus groups, should be utilised to investigate the subjective experiences of employees. The methods employed are essential for understanding how employees perceive and engage with their organisational environment. They offer insight into the impact of SOC on resource allocation, stress management and coping strategies in real time. Additionally, longitudinal studies may be employed to investigate the long-term impacts of the SALCOR framework on employee well-being, resilience and organisational outcomes. These studies would offer insights into the evolution of the interaction between SOC and COR over time, particularly in response to changes in organisational practices or external stressors. By applying mixed-methods research, future studies will offer a more thorough understanding of the impact of the SALCOR framework on employee well-being across different organisational settings. This approach will test the theoretical foundations of the framework and provide practical recommendations for organisational interventions designed to enhance employee resilience, well-being and coping strategies.
Implications for future research
The SALCOR framework provides an innovative approach to understanding the connection between SOC, COR and employee well-being. By addressing the limitations of existing models, especially those that consider SOC and COR separately, it offers a more detailed understanding of how organisational resources and individual perceptions of life influence well-being outcomes. Future research should concentrate on validating the framework through empirical studies that examine its application in various organisational contexts. Furthermore, researchers need to investigate the interdisciplinary potential of the SALCOR framework, broadening its application to areas such as psychology, sociology and public health. Through the examination of the interaction between SOC and COR in different contexts, researchers can gain significant insights into how organisations can foster environments that promote employee resilience and well-being. This will result in more effective organisational practices and improved outcomes for employees.
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the UNISA College of Human Sciences Research Ethics Review NHREC (No. Rec-240816_052 & 35291087_CREC_CHS_2021).
Results
The SALCOR framework provides a comprehensive model for enhancing employee well-being through effective resource management and strengthening the SOC. It highlights the synergistic connection between personal resources, such as resilience, and organisational resources, such as managerial support (see Figure 1). These resources are interdependent, fostering holistic employee well-being.
 |
FIGURE 1: The SALCOR framework and its interconnected components. |
|
Interaction of personal and organisational resources
Theoretical and empirical evidence highlights the significance of personal resources, particularly resilience, in assisting employees to manage workplace challenges. Resilience acts as a deterrent in high-stress environments, with research consistently indicating that resilient individuals experience lower levels of burnout and enhanced job performance (Abdulmohdi, 2024; Rhim, 2023). Resilience is recognised as an internal resource that mitigates the effects of external stressors, enhancing an employee’s capacity to recover from challenging situations (Hobfoll, 2002).
Alongside personal resilience, organisational resources are essential in promoting employee well-being. Practices including supportive management, effective leadership and the promotion of a positive organisational culture are crucial for establishing work environments that maintain employee health and engagement (Arya, 2024; Chidi et al., 2024; Hasan & Sadat, 2023; Rhim, 2023). Nevertheless, the relationship between personal and organisational resources is not constantly effortless. Organisational support may be less effective if employees do not possess the personal resilience to manage stress, or if the organisational culture does not align with employee values (Maleka, 2023). Research indicates that strong managerial support and a positive organisational culture can reduce stressors, thereby improving resilience and overall well-being among employees (Chidi et al., 2024; Maleka, 2023; Mujajati et al., 2024). It is essential for organisations to provide support systems and to actively cultivate the personal resilience of their workforce to create a genuinely supportive environment. In high-pressure sectors such as healthcare, where employees encounter considerable emotional and physical demands, the connection between personal and organisational resources is especially significant (Mujajati et al., 2024). The SALCOR framework addresses this interaction by integrating both internal resources, such as resilience, and external resources, such as managerial support, into an integrated approach that promotes well-being. By addressing both aspects, the framework ensures that employees are prepared to thrive in challenging environments.
Components of the SALCOR framework
The SALCOR framework consists of three interconnected components: personal, interpersonal and organisational. Each component plays a role in enhancing employee well-being through unique yet related mechanisms.
The personal component, grounded in the salutogenic model, emphasises the SOC and internal resources. Research indicates that self-care strategies, including mindfulness and physical exercise, have a significant impact on the overall well-being (Nkabinde-Thamae & Downing, 2024; Nkabinde-Thamae et al., 2022; Osman et al., 2022). These activities are associated with reduced burnout levels, enhanced resilience and greater job satisfaction. Nonetheless, the personal component does have its limitations. Individual differences in resilience may influence the effectiveness with which personal resources are mobilised. Additionally, insufficient organisational support could reduce the positive effects of self-care activities (Williams et al., 2022), thereby decreasing their effectiveness.
The interpersonal component highlights the significance of social interactions in promoting individual well-being. The salutogenic model and COR theory both indicate that social support serves as an essential external resource, assisting employees in managing stress (Chen et al., 2023; Siman-Tov, 2024). Strong social networks have been associated with improved psychological empowerment, job satisfaction and overall well-being (Orlowska & Laguna, 2023; Tatlıcıoğlu et al., 2024). It is important to acknowledge the quality of social support; superficial social interactions may not offer the resilience-boosting benefits that come from deeper social connections. Additional research may investigate the limits of this component, including the impact of different levels of interpersonal support on individual stress management.
The organisational component emphasises external resources, including organisational culture, workload management and resource allocation. Research consistently indicates that organisational support, which encompasses clear communication and effective policies, reduces employee stress and enhances work–life balance, thus promoting SOC and overall well-being (Dzingwa & Terblanche, 2024; Heerden & Naicker, 2023; Kwasu, 2024). While organisational resources might have a positive impact, it is crucial to recognise that a misalignment between organisational values and employee needs may reduce the effectiveness of these resources. Organisations must adapt and regularly assess the effectiveness of their policies to ensure they address the changing needs of their employees.
The aforementioned components interact to create a unified framework that integrates personal, interpersonal and organisational resources to enhance employee well-being. This integration is crucial for establishing a supportive environment that promotes both individual resilience and collective well-being.
Sense of coherence
The SOC component within the SALCOR framework is crucial, highlighting the importance of a strong SOC in assisting employees at establishing meaning and motivation in their work. According to Antonovsky’s (1987) salutogenic model, individuals who demonstrate a strong SOC perceive their environment as comprehensible, manageable and meaningful. This perspective contributes to enhanced resilience and engagement. Empirical studies indicate that organisations can enhance a stronger SOC through specific interventions, including resilience training and leadership development (Chidi et al., 2024; Nzinga et al., 2021). These initiatives lead to improved employee engagement, job satisfaction and mental health (Chidi et al., 2024; Nzinga et al., 2021; Scheuch et al., 2021). Nevertheless, although SOC is an essential resource, its development necessitates ongoing organisational commitment. Research conducted by Michele Masanotti et al. (2020) indicates that SOC could differ because of external factors, including workload and interpersonal conflicts. Future research could focus on the interaction between external factors and SOC, particularly in high-stress environments, providing additional insights into its adaptability and possible interventions.
Synergies within the SALCOR framework
The integration of the salutogenic model and COR theory within the SALCOR framework enables it to consider both internal and external factors that affect employee well-being. The personal component, grounded in the salutogenic model, emphasises the significance of SOC in managing stress by utilising personal strengths and coping strategies (Antonovsky, 1987; Mitonga-Monga & Mayer, 2020). A strong sense of community correlates with enhanced mental health and resilience (Labrague, 2021; Mitonga-Monga & Mayer, 2020). In contrast, the interpersonal and organisational elements, based on COR theory, highlight the importance of external resources, including social support and a conducive work environment (Hobfoll, 2002; Zhao et al., 2024). Conservation of resources theory suggests that external resources enhance individuals’ ability to manage workplace challenges, resulting in more favourable well-being outcomes (Bakker et al., 2023b; Boccoli et al., 2023; Demerouti & Bakker, 2023; Hobfoll, 2002; Zhao et al., 2024). This dual approach enables the SALCOR framework to efficiently fulfil the varied needs of employees. The collaboration between these components is essential to developing a strong workforce. The combination of strong internal resources, such as resilience and a strong sense of community, along with supportive external factors, such as a positive organisational culture, results in increased stress management, increased engagement and better job satisfaction (Berger & Czakert, 2022). There is a need for further empirical research to examine these synergies in various sectors and organisational contexts to assess the adaptability of the SALCOR framework.
Implications for organisational practice
The SALCOR framework offers significant implications for organisational practice. It highlights the significance of developing both personal and organisational resources to enhance employee well-being. For instance, resilience training, leadership development programmes and well-being initiatives are effective measures that organisations can adopt to enhance employees’ SOC and increase job satisfaction (Nzinga et al., 2021; Vito et al., 2024). Research indicates that developing personal resources, such as resilience, leads to improved employee performance and well-being (Hartmann et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2023). Furthermore, organisations that implement supportive policies, including flexible work arrangements and wellness programmes, develop a culture of well-being that is advantageous for both individual employees and the organisation (Weideman & Hofmeyr, 2020).
Organisations should remain diligent to ensure that these interventions are tailored to meet the specific needs of their employees. An approach that applies globally may not yield effective results, as it is essential to consider individual differences and the culture of the organisation. Additional research could investigate the most effective techniques for adapting the SALCOR framework to various organisational contexts. The SALCOR framework offers a thorough and practical method for enhancing employee well-being, especially in demanding sectors such as healthcare. The integration of personal and organisational factors promotes a resilient and engaged workforce, enhancing employee satisfaction, performance and overall well-being. The application of the framework across various sectors might significantly assist in the development of sustainable and healthy work environments.
Limitations and recommendations
The SALCOR framework offers an entirely fresh perspective on understanding employee well-being. However, several limitations need to be addressed to enhance its applicability and strength across different organisational contexts.
Empirical validation across sectors and geographies
A key limitation is the framework’s requirement for empirical validation in various organisational contexts. While it is intended for broad application, its effectiveness in areas such as healthcare, education, corporate sectors and public services requires additional evaluation. Future empirical studies should investigate the effectiveness of the framework across various organisational sizes and geographical areas. Comparisons between high-income settings and developing countries may provide valuable insights into its adaptability across different socioeconomic and cultural contexts. Furthermore, it is important to examine sector-specific challenges, such as employee burnout in healthcare and work–life balance in education, to better understand how the framework operates in each context. Understanding how these sectoral differences influence employee well-being will aid in refining the framework for contexts. Additionally, cultural and generational differences may influence the effectiveness of the framework. Younger employees are increasingly prioritising flexible work arrangements, which may affect the implementation of the framework. Research should investigate how these generational changes in work preferences, along with wider cultural norms (such as views on hierarchy in collectivist compared to individualist cultures), influence the effectiveness of the framework.
Refinement of measurement tools for sense of coherence and resilience
Another limitation is the subjective nature of constructs such as SOC and resilience, which are shaped by individual contextual factors including age, job role and cultural background. Because of the significant variability among employee groups, there is a necessity for more standardised and culturally sensitive measurement tools. For example, existing scales for SOC may be modified to consider cultural differences and specific role-related factors. Enhancing these tools could improve the consistency and validity of measurements among various populations. It is essential for psychologists and measurement experts to collaborate in developing scales that more effectively reflect the dynamics of SOC and resilience across various organisational and cultural contexts. Standardising these tools will assist in reducing biases and ensuring that the framework’s findings are more reliable and universally applicable.
Contextualising assumptions regarding resource availability
The SALCOR framework indicates that employees demonstrate access to specific resources and organisational support. However, this assumption may not be applicable in all contexts, especially in organisations with different leadership styles and structural configurations. Hierarchical organisations may provide employees with less autonomy compared to flat, flexible structures, which may affect how employees interact with and gain advantages from the framework. Future research should investigate how these organisational variables – such as leadership styles, employee autonomy and organisational culture – impact the implementation of the framework. Research that investigates the impact of leadership on well-being, especially across different organisational models, would yield important insights into the functioning of the framework within these diverse settings. Understanding how these contextual factors affect the availability of resources will enable a more refined application of the framework.
Longitudinal and mixed-methods approaches
A solid research design, including longitudinal and mixed-methods approaches, is advised to evaluate the long-term applicability of the SALCOR framework. Longitudinal studies can monitor changes in employee well-being over time, especially during times of organisational change, including mergers, leadership transitions or policy changes. These studies will offer a deeper understanding of how the framework adjusts to changing organisational environments. Furthermore, a mixed-methods approach that integrates quantitative data, such as well-being surveys, with qualitative insights from interviews and focus groups, would provide a thorough understanding of the framework’s practical application. The combination of quantitative and qualitative data would enhance the interpretation of employee well-being outcomes and offer a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between personal and organisational resources.
Interdisciplinary collaboration
A collaborative approach is crucial for enhancing the theoretical foundation of the SALCOR framework. Contributions from psychology, organisational behaviour, social science and management research could significantly enhance the design of the framework. Psychologists could enhance measurement tools for SOC and resilience, whereas management scholars can offer valuable insights into the impact of leadership and organisational culture on well-being. Psychologists may provide guidance on psychometric tools, while management experts could contribute to leadership training and interventions based on the framework. Collaboration across different disciplines will help guarantee that the framework is both scientifically sound and practically applicable in various organisational settings.
Qualitative research for in-depth insights
To enhance the understanding of employee well-being, future research should focus on qualitative methods, including interviews, focus groups and case studies. These methods would capture the experiences of various employee groups – frontline workers, managers and remote workers – illustrating how different factors, such as social support, work autonomy and leadership styles, influence overall well-being. In-depth interviews with employees may offer valuable insights into the impact of organisational policies regarding work flexibility on well-being. Integrating these qualitative findings with quantitative data would offer a more thorough understanding of the factors affecting well-being, enabling organisations to develop targeted interventions that address the specific needs of various employee groups.
Practical application in organisational settings
Organisations seeking to implement the SALCOR framework should convert its theoretical insights into practical, actionable strategies. For instance, customised well-being programmes that consider sector-specific challenges and leadership development initiatives may assist employees in building resilience and enhancing their overall well-being. Future research should offer organisations clear implementation guidelines and evidence-based strategies that directly address the limitations of the framework and relevant contextual considerations. These strategies will allow organisations to improve employee well-being and performance in a more targeted and efficient way. Advancing empirical testing, refining measurement tools, embracing interdisciplinary collaboration and incorporating longitudinal and mixed-methods approaches can significantly enhance the applicability and strength of the SALCOR framework. These initiatives will allow organisations to create more effective strategies for enhancing employee well-being, resulting in healthier and more productive workforces across various sectors and regions.
Conclusion
This study presents the SALCOR framework, an original integration of the salutogenic model and the COR theory, offering a comprehensive perspective on employee well-being. The integration of Antonovsky’s SOC with Hobfoll’s COR theory creates a unique framework that merges personal and organisational resources, providing a thorough understanding of how these resources interact to enhance resilience and productivity. The SALCOR framework offers practical strategies for organisations to improve employee well-being. The implementation of training programmes designed to enhance SOC and resilience is crucial, along with the development of organisational cultures that emphasise work–life balance, social support and employee engagement. These interventions may effectively reduce burnout, improve job satisfaction and increase productivity, thereby contributing to a healthier and more efficient workforce. The SALCOR framework demonstrates considerable adaptability in various organisational settings. In healthcare environments marked by significant stress and burnout, it is essential for organisations to focus on fostering supportive workplace cultures and to introduce resilience training through targeted stress management programmes. In corporate environments, organisations may prioritise flexible work structures and the enhancement of psychological resources to promote employee well-being. Future research should focus on the empirical validation of the SALCOR framework in different organisational contexts. Longitudinal studies may offer valuable insights into the development of individual and organisational resources over time, along with their impact on the sustained well-being of employees. Cross-sectoral studies are essential for improving the application of the framework in healthcare, education and corporate sectors. Investigating the specific processes through which SOC and organisational resources interact will enhance the understanding of the ways they contribute to resilience, job satisfaction and overall well-being. The SALCOR framework is an effective tool for organisations aiming to enhance employee well-being. By highlighting the significance of both individual and organisational resources, organisations can develop an effective workforce capable of addressing and overcoming workplace challenges. In conclusion, the framework improves employee satisfaction and fosters organisational success, thus creating a healthier and more productive work environment.
Acknowledgements
This article is partially based on the author, N.I.M.’s Master’s dissertation entitled ‘Developing a Well-being Framework to Enhance the Sense of Coherence and Work-life Balance of Nurses in Mpumalanga Public Hospitals’ towards the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology in the Industrial and Organisational Psychology Department, University of South Africa, South Africa, with supervisor Professor Sonja Grobler, received 19 September 2024.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
N.I.M. and S.G. contributed equally to this work.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, S.G., upon reasonable request.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.
References
Abdulmohdi, N. (2024). The relationships between nurses’ resilience, burnout, perceived organisational support and social support during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic: A quantitative cross-sectional survey. Nursing Open, 11(1), e2036. https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.2036
Abe, E.N. (2015). The connection between work-life balance (WLB) and a sense of coherence (SOC) at a municipality in the South African public sector (Doctoral dissertation). University of KwaZulu-Natal.
Ajayi, F.A., & Udeh, C.A. (2024). Combating burnout in the IT industry: A review of employee well-being initiatives. International Journal of Applied Research in Social Sciences, 6(4), 567–588. https://doi.org/10.51594/ijarss.v6i4.1010
Akdere, M., & Egan, T. (2020). Transformational leadership and human resource development: Linking employee learning, job satisfaction, and organisational performance. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 31(4), 393–421. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21404
Arya, B.S. (2024). Impact of organizational support on resilience and work burnout on Kerala police personnel (Master’s dissertation). Kerala University.
Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well. Jossey-Bass.
Antonovsky, A. (2022). The sense of coherence and the stress process: A review of its origins, dimensions, and implications for health promotion. In S.C. Peppé & R.N.H. Reiss (Eds.), Stress and health: Biological and psychological interactions (pp. 125–140). Routledge.
Bakker, A.B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The Job Demands-Resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309–328. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115
Bakker, A.B., Demerouti, E., & Sanz-Vergel, A. (2023a). Job demands–resources theory: Ten years later. Annual Review of Organisational Psychology and Organisational Behavior, 10, 25–53. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-120920-053933
Bakker, A.B., Demerouti, E., & Verbeke, W. (2004). Using the Job Demands-Resources model to predict burnout and performance. Human Resource Management, 43(1), 83–104. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20004
Bakker, A.B., Xanthopoulou, D., & Demerouti, E. (2023b). How does chronic burnout affect dealing with weekly job demands? A test of central propositions in JD-R and COR-theories. Applied Psychology, 72(1), 389–410. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12382
Bartram, D. (2021). Cross-sectional model-building for research on subjective well-being: Gaining clarity on control variables. Social Indicators Research, 155, 725–743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-020-02586-3
Bella, K.M.J. (2023). The power of employee wellbeing: A catalyst for organisational success. International Journal of Scientific Research in Modern Science and Technology, 2(4), 20–26.
Berger, R., & Czakert, J.P. (2022). Stress management and resilience building. In R. Berger, C.A. Dalluege & H.W. Franz (Eds.), Organisational excellence and resilience: Stress management as a component of a sustainable corporate development strategy (pp. 63–88). Springer.
Boccoli, G., Gastaldi, L., & Corso, M. (2023). The evolution of employee engagement: Towards a social and contextual construct for balancing individual performance and wellbeing dynamically. International Journal of Management Reviews, 25(1), 75–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12304
Chan, D., Schmitt, N., & DeShon, R.P. (2022). Employee wellbeing and organisational success: New insights and theoretical advancements. Journal of Organisational Behavior, 43(5), 543–560.
Chen, J.W., Lu, L., & Cooper, C.L. (2023). Protecting well-being and performance after sickness presenteeism under demanding conditions: The dual effects of proactive personality and work reward as resources. European Journal of Work and Organisational Psychology, 32(5), 702–719. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2023.2250083
Chidi, R., Adeniyi, A.O., Okolo, C.A., Babawarun, O., & Arowoogun, J.O. (2024). Psychological resilience in healthcare workers: A review of strategies and intervention. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 17(2), 387–395. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2024.17.2.0088
Coetzee, S., & Viviers, R. (2007). An overview of research on positive psychology in South Africa. South African Journal of Psychology, 37(3), 470–490. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124630703700307
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2023). Revisiting mixed methods research designs twenty years later. In C. Teddlie, A. Tashakkori, M. Sandelowski, & R. Johnson (eds.), The SAGE handbook of mixed methods research design (pp. 21–36). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529682663.n6
Creswell, J.W., & Poth, C.N. (2016). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage.
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Cognitive evaluation theory. In Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Perspectives in social psychology (pp. 43–85). Springer.
Demerouti, E., & Bakker, A.B. (2023). Job demands-resources theory in times of crises: New propositions. Organisational Psychology Review, 13(3), 209–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866221135022
Derbis, R., & Jasiński, A.M. (2018). Work satisfaction, psychological resiliency and sense of coherence as correlates of work engagement. Cogent Psychology, 5(1), 1451610. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2018.1451610
Dzingwa, N., & Terblanche, N. (2024). Coaching to support work-life balance of women in leadership positions. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 22, 2509. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v22i0.2509
Eriksson, M. (2022). The sense of coherence: The concept and its relationship to health. In M.B. Mittelmark et al. (Eds.), The handbook of salutogenesis (pp. 61–68). Springer.
Fukuda, Y., & Fukuda, K. (2022). Educators’ psychosocial burdens due to the COVID-19 pandemic and predictive factors: A cross-sectional survey of the relationship with sense of coherence and social capital. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(4), 2134. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042134
Hartmann, S., Weiss, M., Newman, A., & Hoegl, M. (2020). Resilience in the workplace: A multilevel review and synthesis. Applied Psychology, 69(3), 913–959. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12191
Hasan, T., & Sadat, A. (2023). Dynamics of job satisfaction in Bangladesh’s banking sector implications for employee engagement and organisational success. Journal of Business and Economic Options, 6(4), 36–42.
Heerden, R.V., & Naicker, V. (2023). The mitigating consequences of perceived organisational support on the influence of worker morale in a distributed work landscape. Technology Audit and Production Reserves, 6(4/74), 51–57. https://doi.org/10.15587/2706-5448.2023.292872
Hobfoll, S.E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513
Hobfoll, S.E. (2002). Social and psychological resources and adaptation. Review of General Psychology, 6(4), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.6.4.307
Hobfoll, S.E., Freedy, J., Lane, C., & Geller, P. (1990). Conservation of Social Resources: Social Support Resource Theory. Journal of Social & Personal Relationships, 7, 465–478. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0265407590074004
Guest, D.E. (2020). The impact of wellbeing on organisational outcomes: An overview of existing models. Organisational Psychology Review, 10(4), 348–366.
Kupcewicz, E. (2022). Global self-esteem and stress intensity in a group of polish nurses – A mediatory role of a sense of coherence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(2), 975. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020975
Kwasu, E.A. (2024). Work-life balance practices and employee performance at technical University of Kenya. Doctoral dissertation, St. Paul’s University.
Labrague, L.J. (2021). Psychological resilience, coping behaviours and social support among health care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review of quantitative studies. Journal of Nursing Management, 29(7), 1893–1905. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.13336
Lu, Y., Zhang, M.M., Yang, M.M., & Wang, Y. (2023). Sustainable human resource management practices, employee resilience, and employee outcomes: Toward common good values. Human Resource Management, 62(3), 331–353. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.22153
Maleka, S. (2023). The influence of organisational culture on the implementation of strategic plans in a public service organisation (Vol. 1). ResearchGate.
Maslach, C., & Leiter, M.P. (2022). The burnout challenge: Managing people’s relationships with their jobs. Harvard University Press.
Mayer, C.H., & May, M. (2019). The positive psychology movements PP1. 0 and PP2. 0 in psychobiography. In C.H. Mayer & Z. Kovary (eds.), New trends in psychobiography (pp. 155–171). Springer.
Mayer, C.H., Wegerle, C., & Oosthuizen, R.M. (2021). The impact of the fourth industrial revolution on managers’ sense of coherence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(8), 3857. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083857
Mercer, S. (2023). The wellbeing of language teachers in the private sector: An ecological perspective. Language Teaching Research, 27(5), 1054–1077. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820973510
Michele Masanotti, G., Paolucci, S., Abbafati, E., Serratore, C., & Caricato, M. (2020). Sense of coherence in nurses: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(6), 1861. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17061861
Micklitz, K., Wong, G., & Howick, J. (2021). Mindfulness-based programmes to reduce stress and enhance well-being at work: A realist review. BMJ Open, 11(3), e043525. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043525
Mitonga-Monga, J., & Mayer, C.H. (2020). Sense of coherence, burnout, and work engagement: The moderating effect of coping in the Democratic Republic of Congo. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(11), 4127. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17114127
Mujajati, E., Ferreira, N., & Du Plessis, M. (2024). Fostering organisational commitment: A resilience framework for private-sector organisations in South Africa. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1303866. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1303866
Nguyen, P.T., Yandi, A., & Mahaputra, M.R. (2020). Factors that influence employee performance: Motivation, leadership, environment, culture organisation, work achievement, competence and compensation (A study of human resource management literature studies). Dinasti International Journal of Digital Business Management, 1(4), 645–662.
Nkabinde-Thamae, G.J., & Downing, C. (2024). Self-care practices among professional nurses employed in primary health care clinics. South African Family Practice, 66(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.4102/safp.v66i1.5955
Nkabinde-Thamae, G., Downing, C., & Nene, S. (2022). Self-care neglect through the voices of nurses working in primary healthcare clinics in Gauteng, South Africa. Nursing Forum, 57(6), 1330–1338. https://doi.org/10.1111/nuf.12812
Nzinga, J., Boga, M., Kagwanja, N., Waithaka, D., Barasa, E., Tsofa, B., … & Molyneux, S. (2021). An innovative leadership development initiative to support building everyday resilience in health systems. Health Policy and Planning, 36(7), 1023–1035. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czab056
Orlowska, A., & Laguna, M. (2023). Structural and psychological empowerment in explaining job satisfaction and burnout in nurses: A two-level investigation. Journal of Nursing Management, 2023(1), 9958842. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/9958842
Osman, I., Hamid, S., & Singaram, V. S. (2021). Efficacy of a brief online mindfulness-based intervention on the psychological well-being of health care professionals and trainees during the COVID-19 pandemic: A mixed method design. Health SA Gesondheid (Online), 26, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.4102/hsag.v26i0.1682
Paterson, C., Davis, D., Roberts, C., Bail, K., Wallis, E., Northam, H.L., Frost, J., Jojo, N., McGrory, C., Dombkins, A., & Kavanagh, P.S. (2024). Sense of coherence moderates job demand-resources and impact on burnout among nurses and midwives in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional survey. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 80(10), 4113–4125. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.16125
Rhim, T.D. (2023). Personal resilience as an interventional strategy to reduce physician burnout. Doctoral dissertation, Walden University. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/14456
Roth, W.M. (2019). In search of meaning and coherence: A life in research (Vol. 1). Brill.
Sagy, S., Eriksson, M., & Braun-Lewensohn, O. (2015). The salutogenic paradigm. In S. Joseph (ed.), Positive psychology in practice: Promoting human flourishing in work, health, education, and everyday life (2nd ed., pp. 61–80). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Scheuch, I., Peters, N., Lohner, M. S., Muss, C., Aprea, C., & Fürstenau, B. (2021). Resilience training programs in organisational contexts: A scoping review. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 733036. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.733036
Siman-Tov, A. (2024). Salutogenesis and the wellbeing of siblings of individuals with autism spectrum disorder: Contribution of involvement, resistance resources, and loneliness. In Child & youth care forum (pp. 1–24). Springer US.
Sonnentag, S., Tay, L., & Nesher Shoshan, H. (2023). A review on health and well-being at work: More than stressors and strains. Personnel Psychology, 76(2), 473–510.
Storheim, D.A. (2024). Exploring the dynamics of work passion, motivation and work-related sense of coherence: Insights from organisations in Norway. Master’s thesis, University of Oslo.
Tatlıcıoğlu, O., Kılıç, A., Apak, H., & Koçak, O. (2024). How job satisfaction is associated with psychological well-being among social workers in turkey: The mediating role of meaning in life. Journal of Social Service Research, 50(1), 92–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/01488376.2023.2276134
Tran, H.P. (2019). How authentic leadership promotes individual knowledge sharing: Viewing from the lens of COR theory. Management & Marketing, 14(4), 386–401. https://doi.org/10.2478/mmcks-2019-0027
Vito, R., Schmidt-Hanbidge, A., Brunskill, L., Mudge, C., & Suteu, D. (2024). Evaluation of leadership training and resilience development outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Human Service Organisations: Management, Leadership & Governance, 48(4), 436–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/23303131.2023.2287742
Vogt, K., Hakanen, J.J., Jenny, G.J., & Bauer, G.F. (2016). Sense of coherence and the motivational process of the job-demands–resources model. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 21(2), 194. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039899
Weideman, M., & Hofmeyr, K.B. (2020). The influence of flexible work arrangements on employee engagement: An exploratory study. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 18(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v18i0.1209
Williams, S.G., Fruh, S., Barinas, J.L., & Graves, R.J. (2022). Self-care in nurses. Journal of Radiology Nursing, 41(1), 22–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jradnu.2021.11.001
Zhao, B., Lu, Y., Wang, X., & Pang, L. (2024). Challenge stressors and learning from failure: The moderating roles of emotional intelligence and error management culture. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 36(2), 238–251. https://doi.org/10.1080/09537325.2022.2028765
|
Hide
Show all
Email this article (Login required)
