Ubuntu, an African philosophy emphasising communal relationships and shared humanity, posits that ‘I am human only because you are human’ (Tutu, 2000). This concept, strongly endorsed in sub-Saharan Africa (Gade, 2012), underscores the interdependence of individuals within a community, highlighting mutual respect and interconnectedness (Metz, 2011). In contrast, those individuals from an Anglo-Saxon cultural background, comprising mostly English-speaking countries, are characterised by individualism. Mainstream Anglo-Saxon culture prioritises personal goals and individual rights, viewing individuals as autonomous and self-reliant (House et al., 2004), while fostering competitiveness and a focus on personal achievement (Ashkanasy et al., 2001). A long tradition exists of comparing African and Western perspectives, typically through post-colonial analyses (Nkomo, 2011), Afrocentric versus Eurocentric frameworks (Akpan & Odohoedi, 2016), direct comparative studies (Molefe, 2024) and decolonisation scholarship (Getachew & Mantena, 2021), all of which implicitly engage with contrasts between African and Western worldviews. Recent discussions highlight a renewed appreciation for Ubuntu’s principles as uniquely African solutions provided for African challenges (Bhuda & Marumo, 2022; Molefe & Magam, 2019). However, sub-Saharan Africa’s colonial history, particularly under British rule, promoted Western ideologies as superior, marginalising indigenous philosophies like Ubuntu, despite these beliefs’ deep roots and influence (Nussbaum, 2003).

The question arises whether Ubuntu and its principles remain prevalent and influential in sub-Saharan Africa.

If Ubuntu is indeed emic to the region, steps should be taken to leverage its regionally rooted and beneficial principles, as emic systems are more likely to align with and effectively address local circumstances (Mazonde & Carmichael, 2020; Sadler & Fuller, 2020). The emic nature of Ubuntu will be examined in this study by comparing the values of individuals from sub-Saharan Africa with those from Anglo-Saxon backgrounds.

Ubuntu will be considered emic if values associated with the concept are more frequently endorsed by individuals from sub-Saharan Africa than by persons from the Anglo-Saxon world.

Ubuntu is a Southern African philosophy emphasising communal relationships, interconnectedness and mutual respect. The term ‘Ubuntu’ is often encapsulated in the phrase, ‘I am because we are’, highlighting the belief that an individual’s humanity is inextricably linked to the community (Tshivhase, 2023). Core principles of Ubuntu include compassion, dignity and shared humanity, which serve as foundational values in many sub-Saharan African societies (Mutanga, 2023). In a comprehensive definition, Steyn and Msweli (2026, p. 10) describe Ubuntu as:

As an emic construct, Ubuntu is deeply embedded within the cultural fabric of sub-Saharan Africa. It influences various aspects of life, including social norms, governance and ethical frameworks. The philosophy underscores the importance of collective well-being over individual gain, fostering a sense of community and social cohesion (Mutanga, 2023). Historically, Ubuntu has played a critical role in conflict resolution and restorative justice practices within African communities (Waghid, 2022).

The Anglo cultural cluster, encompassing countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia, is predominantly characterised by individualism. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory identifies individualism versus collectivism as a key differentiator between cultures (Hofstede, 2001). In individualistic societies, personal achievements and autonomy are prioritised, whereas collectivist cultures, like those influenced by Ubuntu, emphasise group harmony and interdependence (Alqarni, 2022). These contrasting orientations manifest in various societal structures, including family dynamics, workplace relationships and governance systems.

The colonial history of sub-Saharan Africa has significantly impacted indigenous value systems. Colonial powers often imposed Western ideologies, undermining and marginalising local philosophies such as Ubuntu (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2023). In response, decolonisation efforts have sought to reclaim and revitalise indigenous knowledge systems, advocating for the integration of Ubuntu principles into contemporary African governance and education (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2023). This movement aims to address the lingering effects of colonialism and promote a more authentic representation of African identity and values.

Quantifying culturally embedded constructs like Ubuntu presents methodological challenges. The World Values Survey (WVS) offers a comprehensive dataset that can be utilised to identify proxies for Ubuntu-related values (World Values Survey Association, 2020). However, researchers must exercise caution in selecting appropriate indicators that accurately reflect the multifaceted nature of Ubuntu. Previous studies have employed various survey items to approximate constructs such as communalism and social cohesion, yet the validity of these proxies remains a subject of ongoing debate (Mutanga, 2023). Ensuring cultural sensitivity and contextual relevance is paramount in the empirical examination of Ubuntu values.

Cross-sectional quantitative data from the WVS seventh wave (Haerpfer et al., 2022) were analysed. Data from the eighth wave are incomplete, as data collection is still ongoing.

The premise of this article was that Ubuntu values, as represented by selected items from the WVS, would reveal that Africans, at least more so than individuals from the Anglo-Saxon world, demonstrate alignment with Ubuntu principles. Table 4 presents the results from Table 2 and Table 3 alongside corresponding interpretations. The key question addressed is: Did Africans display more Ubuntu-aligned values than those from the Anglo cluster? The final column shows the results, while the penultimate column provides interpretations of these findings.

In Table 4, the outcomes from the hypothesis testing are presented. The table shows whether sub-Saharan Africa scored higher, lower or showed no significant difference compared to Anglo-Saxon countries on Ubuntu-related questions. An overall summary of the results shows that in five (5) instances, Ubuntu-aligned values were more prevalent in Africa; in eight (8) instances, they were less prevalent; and in five (5) instances, there were no significant differences. Returning to the elements of Ubuntu, empathy, respect, community, generosity and harmony (Steyn & Msweli, 2026), the results of Table 4 are discussed:

Overall, the findings reflect an uneven endorsement of Ubuntu-related values in sub-Saharan Africa. While some aspects, such as community, generosity and respect for authority are strongly represented, the key indicators of empathy, personal respect and harmony are less frequently endorsed. This mixed pattern suggests that Ubuntu’s cultural presence may be uneven or contested, rather than uniformly dominant across the region.

In this study, the endorsement of Ubuntu-related values by individuals from sub-Saharan Africa was compared to those in an Anglo-Saxon cluster. Nineteen items from the WVS were used as proxies for Ubuntu. Data from over 3000 sub-Saharan Africans and more than 6000 individuals from Anglo-Saxon countries were analysed, with each cluster represented by three countries. Comparisons were made at the cluster level only.

The results indicate that Ubuntu-aligned values were more prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa in five instances, less prevalent in eight and showed no significant difference in five other countries. While respondents endorsed items that aligned with a general understanding of values such as community, generosity and respect for authority, other elements such as empathy, personal respect and harmony were less frequently endorsed by those living in sub-Saharan Africa. Based on these findings, Ubuntu may appear to be less prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa than in the Anglo-Saxon world. Using the Anglo-Saxon context as a reference point, this study revealed a mixed and inconsistent pattern of Ubuntu’s cultural presence in the region, suggesting that the concept may be contested and far from universally upheld.

Such a finding presents a theoretical and philosophical dilemma, as claiming that Western (Anglo-Saxon) societies exhibit a greater prevalence of Ubuntu than African societies directly contradict the foundational premises of the concept. Ubuntu is, by definition, culturally situated (Gade, 2012; Metz, 2011; Molefe & Magam, 2019) and cannot be treated as a universal construct endorsed in non-African contexts without substantial reinterpretation. This apparent tension can, however, be mitigated when considering the use of proxies and the associated measurement challenges, particularly where the underlying concepts are not measured directly. If Ubuntu is understood as a humane or relational orientation, it is plausible that such values may manifest in Anglo-Saxon contexts as well as within sub-Saharan Africa, albeit through different cultural expressions.

Recent research on leadership provides a useful parallel. Eva et al. (2024) demonstrated that widely used leadership measures share substantial common variance, with limited unique effects attributable to individual leadership styles, indicating considerable conceptual overlap (see also Anderson & Sun, 2017). Although leadership is not the primary focus of the present study, these findings highlight broader challenges in measuring closely related value-based constructs. Meta-analytic evidence further points to empirical redundancy among positive leadership constructs (Hoch et al., 2016), and additional findings show that when leadership styles are examined concurrently, many lose their unique predictive value (DeRue et al., 2011).

Viewed in this light, Ubuntu, as a value-based philosophy assessed through indirect proxies, may have been operationalised in a manner that captures a broader humane or relational orientation rather than a culturally specific enactment of Ubuntu per se.

Ubuntu’s core values like empathy, respect, generosity, community and harmony (Steyn & Msweli, 2026), were not consistently reflected, as interpreted in this study, in the attitudes or behaviours of the respondents. Instead of a cohesive ethical system, the data reveals selective adherence, internal contradictions and in some cases the absence of these ideals. Ubuntu seems to function more as a symbolic or aspirational identity marker than a coherent lived philosophy guiding everyday life. These findings challenge the uncritical acceptance of Ubuntu as Africa’s moral compass and underscore the need for a more nuanced and perhaps more critical examination of African value systems as they actually exist. However, as alluded to above, any assertion that Ubuntu is ‘less prevalent’ in Africa risks misrepresenting the philosophy, overextending the construct and producing misleading cross-cultural comparisons. It should be considered that the proxies measure a more universal general construct, rather than then the materialisation of that construct in a specific geographical region. It should be considered that the proxies may measure a more general, universal construct rather than the materialisation of that construct within a specific geographical region.