For many individuals, religion is a potent source of comfort (Saritoprak & Abu-Raiya, 2023) and motivation (Fatima et al., 2017, Sulalah et al., 2025, 2026), offering means to maintain an optimistic view and to cope with unique challenges they face in their lives. Previous literature documents that the effectiveness of religiosity as a coping mechanism may depend on whether a person adopts a positive or negative view of life events in relation to religious beliefs (Pargament et al., 2005). Accordingly, many authors, including Pargament et al. (2005) and their followers (e.g. Abu-Raiya et al., 2018; Fatima et al., 2022a; Francis et al., 2019) have considered religious coping as a two-dimensional factor depending on the positive or negative appraisal of life events. By using positive religious coping mechanisms, individuals perceive stressful life events strengthening their secure connection with God. Contrarily, negative religious coping mechanisms make them to evaluate stressful life events as divine punishment. Previous empirical findings generally depict a consistently favourable association of positive religious coping with positive life outcomes such as academic motivation, wellbeing and life satisfaction (Fatima et al., 2017, 2018; Skalski-Bednarz et al., 2022). However, negative religious coping acts as a positive predictor of negative outcomes such as mental health symptoms (e.g. Fatima et al., 2022a; Fekih-Romdhane & Cheour, 2021; Park et al., 2018) but an inconsistent negative predictor of positive life outcomes. Findings from a few studies describe it as a significant negative predictor of positive outcomes such as self-esteem and meaning in life (e.g. Park et al., 2018), while other studies document it to be an insignificant correlate of wellbeing (e.g. Fatima et al., 2022b).

Considering the increasing levels of occupational stress in contemporary workplaces (Ongori & Agolla, 2008), the evaluation of religious coping in relation to employee’s work performance has received little attention from researchers. Work performance in organisational settings has been conceptualised as a multidimensional construct covering behavioural, contextual and adaptive aspects of workplace life. The present study operationalises work performance based on the conceptual framework proposed by Koopmans et al. (2011). The framework conceptualises work performance comprising three dimensions, including task performance, contextual performance and counter productive work behaviours. Together, the three indicators comprehensively assess the complexity of work performance (Koopmans et al., 2014).

Literature demonstrates that people turn to religion when dealing with difficult circumstances (Paika et al., 2017). In a workplace context, Hassan et al. (2016) assert that religious principles and teachings help people understand the significance and meaning of their work, which eventually favourably predicts job satisfaction and productivity. Much direct empirical evidence is not available for the connection between religious coping and work performance. In related studies, general religiosity has been documented as a positive resource in relation to employee engagement, performance, commitment and job satisfaction (e.g. Bal & Kokalan, 2021; Brien et al., 2021). Findings from another correlational study have shown that religiosity, directly and indirectly, predicts job performance through improved employee engagement (Iddagoda & Opatha 2020). Moreover, diverse studies explain that religion-based coping mechanisms are important determinants of work-related outcomes such as work engagement and job satisfaction (Bickerton & Miner, 2021; Pandey & Singh, 2019; Rothmann & Buys, 2011).

The absence of previous literature on the specific connection between religious coping mechanisms and work performance necessitates its evaluation in research. In addition, Koenig (2012) describes that religious coping, compared to other coping strategies, is more advantageous in situations with lesser accessibility of direct control, such as the recent economic and employment situation in Pakistan, which is not under the direct control of employees. In such situations, individuals’ positive perception of support from God may aid in better adjustment and boost their morale for work. Paloutzian’s (2017) emphasis on the psychological underpinnings of positive religious coping in adjusting to difficult situations also supports this assumption.

Several scholars have argued that one way to make sense of the connection of religiosity with positive outcomes and work performance is to explore potential mediatory mechanisms of the link (Abu-Raiya & Pargament, 2015; Ekizler & Galifanova, 2020). Two religiosity theories, reductionist theory (Abu-Raiya & Pargament, 2015) and religious effects theory (Smith, 2003), propose that the beneficial effects of religiosity on life outcomes are explained by non-religious psychological and social factors. Abu-Raiya and Pargament (2015), in their reductionist approach suggest that effects of religiosity on life outcomes operate through non-religious mediatory mechanisms such as meaning making, hope and self-regulatory pathways. Contemporary research continues to support the reductionist approach by providing empirical evidence for the mediating roles of meaning-making, self-efficacy and emotion regulation (e.g. Fatima et al., 2025; Graca & Brandao, 2024; Wnuk, 2024). Recent literature on spirituality at work also supports the reductionist approach by highlighting that workplace spirituality promotes work performance and job satisfaction via mechanisms of motivation, role comprehension and work engagement (e.g. Alqhaiwi & Luu, 2024; Iqbal et al., 2024). Likewise, the theory of religious effects suggests that beneficial effects of religiosity are carried by mediatory mechanisms of social factors, moral guidance and psychological resources (Smith, 2003). Drawing on the two theoretical frameworks, the study proposes that psychological strengths, including hope, optimism, self-efficacy and resilience, as potential mediatory mechanisms could explain the pathways through which religious coping operates to promote work performance. In support of the idea of psychological benefits, the positive psychology movement has led researchers to emphasise psychological strengths and capacities in relation to positive human and organisational outcomes (e.g. Luthans et al., 2004; Shakil et al., 2025). The explanatory psychological capital proposition may well extend to the link between religiosity and work performance.

The proposed mediatory link can be supported by empirical research on religious psychology (e.g. Paloutzian, 2017; Watts et al., 2006), which presumes religious coping to become a potential source of gratitude, forgiveness, resilience, self-efficacy and optimism. Moreover, based on a meta-analysis, Ano and Vasconcelles (2005) also conclude in their review that religious coping promotes several psychological benefits such as optimism, acceptance, hope and spiritual development, all of which are beneficial for positive life outcomes. Likewise, Islamic teachings also attest to the significance of religious coping in finding meaning and providing mechanisms to cope with difficult life circumstances. For example, the message from a Qur’anic verse emphasising the significance of relief in hard times (Al Qur’an 94:06) clearly provides encouragement to build optimism, resilience and hope in hard times.

Indirect support for the proposed mediating associations comes from a few studies. For example, Narsa and Wijaynti (2021) found psychological capital explaining the association between religious orientation and job stressors. The explanatory role of various psychological factors such as optimism, self-efficacy and work values has been documented from the findings of other studies conducted on religiosity in relation to subjective wellbeing, work commitment and job satisfaction (e.g. Ekizler & Galifanova, 2020; Hassan et al., 2016). Based on these considerations, it has been proposed that psychological capital factors will explain the association between religious coping and workplace performance. While research in this area is limited, we cannot propose whether all or specific psychological capital factors will explain this connection.

A couple of logical reasons also convinced us to propose this meditational model. Firstly, engineers in their middle adulthood years have the freedom to practice religiosity or use religious coping mechanisms. It is well known that freely chosen religious acts are more impactful (Koenig, 2012); hence, assessing the present objectives on this sample is assumed to be more pragmatic. Secondly, engineering as a profession is associated with high job demands of novelty, rigour and a productivity-oriented approach; therefore, engineers are required to rely on internal positive resources such as psychological strengths and religious coping to effectively deal with high job demands.

With increasing interest of researchers in the psychology of religion or spirituality, the growing volume of research has unlocked the protective role of religiosity in promoting mental wellbeing and psychological outcomes (e.g. Fatima et al., 2025; Skalski-Bednarz et al., 2022). However, empirical evidence for the beneficial effects of spirituality or religiosity at work for improved performance is very limited. Mostly, the related literature on religious coping has focused on mental health outcomes (e.g. Fatima et al., 2025) with little attention being paid to work performance. The present study is contextualised in the organisational settings of Pakistan, where religion as a central theme of life shapes individual’s values, adaptive coping and behavioural tendencies. For this population, religious coping operates as a culturally embedded social mechanism to interpret stress, derive meaning and regulate affect and behaviour. Despite the critical importance of the central theme of religious coping as a culturally grounded internal resource, organisational research has largely ignored it and mostly focused on managerial and contextual determinants of employee performance. This research gap becomes particularly salient for engineers who work under high pressure for innovative solutions and excellent performance, requiring them to effectively use personal psychological resources. In addition, like many developing countries in the world, employment challenges in Pakistan are on the rise owing to natural disasters, political and economic uncertainty, poverty, high inflation rates and socio-economic crises. These challenges threaten employee morale and work performance (Begum, 2022). In a survey study conducted by Kakepoto et al. (2012) based on a sample of 30 Pakistani engineers, 51.70% of the sample agreed, and 31.97% strongly agreed that they were facing low workplace motivation. The job demands-resources model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007) proposes that positive resources such as religiosity and psychological capital may boost employee performance when job demands are high. In the absence of external or environmental reinforcers, religion as an internal coping mechanism and personal psychological strength may assist them in maintaining an optimistic view of workplace challenges and improving their work performance.

Based on the literature review, the current study intends to develop an explanatory model to uncover associations among religious coping and work performance that are mediated by psychological capital factors. Therefore, the researchers in this study propose to assess two study hypotheses: (1) positive religious coping would positively predict, and negative religious coping would negatively predict work performance; and (2) psychological capital factors will mediate the relationship between religious coping factors and work performance. The current study contributes novel insights to the literature on the relationship between religiosity and work performance by evaluating the mediating role of psychological capital using a sample of engineers from a South Asian country with Muslims majority. Figure 1 displays the conceptual model that the study suggested.

A correlational research design was used in the present study. Considering the inclusion criteria, 507 engineers were selected using a convenient sampling technique. Eligibility criteria for participation required participants to have at least 1 year of professional experience and to be in the age range of 25–45 years (the most active phase of career where organisational commitment becomes relatively stable). During the data screening process, responses from seven participants were excluded as outliers or because of demonstration of non-serious response patterns. Consequently, the effective sample size was 500 engineers, consisting of 80% men and 20% women, with their ages ranging from 29 years to 45 years (M age = 33.49, standard deviation [SD] = 6.82). All participants were South Asians, worked as engineers in Pakistan, and held Pakistani nationality. The demographic information of the sample is shown in Table 1.

Upon receiving ethical approval from COMSATS University, Lahore campus vide letter no. HUM/DAC/2022/011, data collection was conducted via online Google Forms. The researchers first contacted the human resource managers and/or chief executive officers of private and public sector engineering companies to brief them about the study and to obtain permission for data collection from their company. After obtaining permission, a Google Forms link was shared with the respective company’s manager and/or chief executive officer as per the protocols of specific organisations to be shared with the respective company’s employee engineers. In the introductory form, a brief description of the study was provided, followed by obtaining the consent of the participants. Participants were assured of the anonymity and confidentiality of their responses to encourage honest and unbiased responses. Participation was entirely voluntary, and participants were informed that there were no right or wrong responses. Participants who provided consent gained access to subsequent forms requiring responses to items assessing the study’s constructs. Upon completion, participants were cordially thanked for their involvement and cooperation in the study.

Data were screened for missing values and outliers before computing composite scores for each variable. Item-wise missing data were handled by replacing missing values with series mean values. Descriptive analysis was conducted for all variables. To rule out any confounding effects because of demographics and to eventually control in mediation models, correlation coefficients for demographic variables measured on a ratio scale (age, income, job experience in years, working hours) were computed with work performance. Similarly, group differences across categorical variables (gender, marital status, family system, living area, work sector, subfield, duty shift, terminal degree and religious orientation) were calculated for psychological capital factors and work performance by analysing t tests for dichotomous demographics and analysis of variance (ANOVA) for categorical variables with more than two categories.

Next, before testing the mediation model, primary assumptions of mediation analysis were evaluated. For this purpose, Pearson correlation coefficients between religious coping, work performance and four psychological capital factors were calculated. Significance of a paths (independent variables [IVs]←→mediators) was tested by calculating the correlations of religious coping factors with psychological capital factors. Similarly, significance of c paths (independent variables [IVs]←→dependent variables [DVs]) was tested by calculating the correlations of religious coping factors with work performance. Also, significance of b paths (mediators←→DV) was tested by calculating the correlations of psychological capital factors with work performance. Then, mediation analyses were calculated for those religious coping and psychological capital factors having significant a, b and c paths. Notably, significant psychological capital factors were analysed as simultaneous mediators in the relationship between a specific religious coping factor and work performance using a multi-mediation model in Process (Model 4). To address potential confounding factors, potential demographic covariates were adjusted based on their significance. Before analysing the mediation model, raw scores for all variables under study were normalised to a mean of 0 and a SD of 1. The analysis was strengthened by using 5000 bootstrapped confidence intervals. Significance of indirect paths was noted from confidence interval. When zero did not come in between lower limit and upper limit, the indirect path was considered significant.

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Departmental Advisory Committee, Department of Humanities, COMSATS University, Islamabad (Ref. No. HUM/DAC/2022/011).

Group differences in work performance and psychological capital factors were tested for categorical demographics (See Table 2). Significant group differences were observed only for marital status with single compared to married participants reporting significantly higher levels of hope (single M = 26.75, SD = 3.18 > Married M = 26.03, SD = 3.30) and work performance (single M = 58.27, SD = 5.90 > Married M = 57.12, SD = 6.23), and lower levels of self-efficacy (t₄₉₈ = −2.73, p < 0.01, single M = 27.10, SD = 3.71 < Married M = 28.01, SD = 3.53). Hence, only marital status was covaried in the final mediation analysis. The demographic correlation results indicated no significant relationship of tested demographic variables with work performance and psychological capital factors (see Table 3).

To test the assumptions of mediation analyses, correlations between variables were calculated. Results from correlation analysis revealed that out of two tested religious coping factors, only positive but not negative religious coping significantly and positively correlated with work performance. Considering the significance of c path for only positive religious coping, this variable was tested as an independent variable in the mediation model. Moreover, positive religious coping significantly correlated with all psychological capital factors: hope, resilience, self-efficacy and optimism, while negative religious coping negatively correlated only with hope. Regarding the significance of b paths, only resilience and hope significantly and positively correlated with work performance, hence tested as two simultaneous mediators in the mediation model (see Table 3).

Finally, in the multi-mediation model, positive religious coping, being the significant correlate of work performance was analysed as an independent variable, resilience and hope, being the only significant correlates of work performance were examined as two concurrent mediators, and work performance was analysed as the criterion variable. Marital status was controlled as a covariate of hope, resilience and work performance in this model. The results from the mediation model revealed that of the two mediators, only hope significantly mediated the positive link between positive religious coping and work performance. The direct and indirect predictive associations have been shown in Table 4. As evident from the results, the total c path from positive religious coping to work performance was reduced from 0.20 to 0.18 (direct c’ path) after the mediators significantly explained the indirect path. The findings demonstrated a significant indirect path for hope (B = 0.01, standard error [SE] = 0.01; LLCI–ULCI = 0.002–0.03) but not for resilience. As the direct c’ path remained significant in the presence of mediators, it was inferred that hope partially mediates the positive link between positive religious coping and work performance. The same is also evident from Figure 2 showing the resulting mediation model.

Traditionally, earlier studies have investigated the associations of religiosity with work engagement, job satisfaction and employee commitment (e.g. Bal & Kokalan, 2021; Brien et al., 2021). The link may well extend to religious coping and work performance. As predicted, the study’s results revealed a positive link of positive religious coping with work performance. Although literature reports positive religious coping as a significant factor of job satisfaction and work engagement (e.g. Bickerton & Miner, 2021; Pandey & Singh, 2019) and other religious dimensions as significant positive factors of work-related outcomes (e.g. Jurek et al., 2023, Vu, 2020), the studies on religious coping as a predictor of work performance are absent from the literature. The present study has assessed this objective on a sample from an underrepresented population, Pakistani engineers, to fill the gap in the literature on the psychology of religion in workplace performance.

Similarly, as expected, the study findings revealed that positive religious coping was a significant positive correlate of all four psychological factors. Literature supports these expectations, as many theorists, psychologists and researchers (e.g. Paloutzian, 2017; Watkins et al., 2023) have highlighted the psychological function served by religious beliefs in finding meaning and coping with stressful situations. Also, for the current sample of Muslim engineers, Islamic teachings and principles may provide psychological strength to religious believers for developing optimism, resilience and hope in difficult situations. Several verses from Qur’an (e.g. Al Qur’an 94:06) also provide inspiration to build strengths of hope, resilience and optimism among Muslims.

Negative religious coping turned out to be a negative correlate of hope only. Interestingly, the current findings did not show any significant association of negative religious coping with three of the four psychological capital factors or with work performance. It is less intuitive to understand why negative religious coping appears an insignificant factor given the evidence from many studies reporting it as a significant negative correlate of positive life outcomes (Park et al., 2018; Sotudeh et al., 2022). Notably, most of such work has focused on constructs such as mental health, wellbeing, meaning in life, among others, and has ignored work performance and psychological strength-related variables in organisational settings. Given the clue that research in this area is limited, more research is needed to affirm the role of negative religious coping in psychological strength and employee performance. In addition, in the current study, the sample endorsed relatively much lower scores on negative religious coping in comparison with positive religious coping. This description implies that Pakistani engineers generally rely on positive religious coping instead of negative coping, making the latter an insignificant factor for their life outcomes. The same has also been supported by earlier studies based on young adult samples from the same culture (e.g. Fatima et al., 2022a, 2022b). The present findings, coupled with these earlier studies may lead us to conclude that adult Pakistani individuals generally use more positive compared to negative religious coping and represent a secure connection with God.

Watkins et al. (2023), based on a field experimental study, recommend the evaluation of spiritual or religious appraisal or related constructs (such as religious coping and meaning making) in spontaneous situations where no prompts for the spiritual or religious explanations are provided and which are not bound to the context of any religious institute. Guided by their recommendations, in the present study, religious coping constructs have been evaluated in the practical lives of employees beyond the religious contexts with no prompts provided for religious coping. This approach is, of course, superior to the induced experimental conditions in terms of the generalisability of the findings regarding religious coping mechanisms to real life situations.

Finally, partial statistical support for the multi-mediation model from the second hypothesis further emphasised the statistically significant role of positive religious coping as a positive resource for strengthening psychological capital, both of which act as positive resources for work performance according to the demands-resources model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). The job demands-resources model explains the interplay between job demands and resources such as positive concepts or attributes that contribute towards employee performance and psychological outcomes when job demands are high. Specifically, the present results revealed that of the two psychological capital dimensions tested as mediators, only hope significantly explained the positive connection of positive religious coping with work performance. Similar findings from other studies showed self-efficacy as the only mediator linking positive religious coping to mental wellbeing (Fatima et al., 2025) and hope as the only mediator of the motivational orientations and counterproductive work behaviour link (Rodríguez-Cifuentes et al., 2020). Jurek et al. (2023) also investigated the impact of turning to religion on the relationship between job satisfaction and perceived hopelessness. The relationship observed in this group suggested that turning to religion could lessen perceived hopelessness and simultaneously increase job satisfaction. Notably, the indirect effect of hope was statistically significant, yet its small magnitude suggests that positive religious coping may likely operate through multiple pathways beyond psychological capital alone. Likewise, work performance being a complex organisational outcome is likely determined by numerous individual, social and organisational factors; therefore, a single psychological capital factor having a modest indirect effect is theoretically expected. Accordingly, the findings provide only preliminary or tentative support for a limited but meaningful mediational pathway.

The present study’s findings can be discussed from several other lenses. Primarily, from the current findings supported by earlier literature, it can be inferred that all psychological factors are not equally important for all life outcomes, rather specific psychological strengths may be more relevant to specific life outcomes such as wellbeing or work performance. Furthermore, the current results support the application of diverse theoretical approaches including the reductionist framework, religious effects theory and the job demands-resources model (Abu-Raiya & Pargament, 2015; Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Smith, 2003) to South Asian Muslim engineers, a sample that differs from samples of Christian and Western youth workers. The current findings, viewed through the perspective of the job demand–resource model, highlight the value of psychological capital and religious coping as resources to offset the high demands of the engineering profession, which include hardness, innovative orientation and a productivity-focused approach. Moreover, as Snyder (2002) discusses, hope is determined by the self as compared to optimistic expectancies, which are associated with external factors, so it is quite likely that hope has appeared as the only mediator in the Pakistani context, where employees are facing high inflation rates and socio-economic downturn. In the absence of external resources, positive religious coping and hope as internal resources may have encouraged Pakistani engineers for good workplace performance. Discussion of the present study’s socio-cultural context of Pakistan is also important in relation to religious coping, given that cultural context has been emphasised by religious scholars (Pargament et al., 2011; Xu, 2015) but has not received much attention. Finally, approach motivational traits generally stemming from psychological resources emphasise building psychological capital by initiatives such as religious training for desirable effects on work-related output (Zhang et al., 2014).

The current study aimed to fill the gap in the literature on the psychology of religion by studying a sample of Pakistani engineers, an underrepresented population. There are a few limitations and suggestions for future research. Firstly, using a cross-sectional study design, it focused on establishing associations between the variables, however, to exert more elaborative causal inferences, a longitudinal design can be utilised in future studies for comparison across various time frames and environmental factors, as well as establishing temporal stability of religious coping and psychological strengths. Secondly, the present findings lend credence to the idea that religious coping and psychological capital are determinants of performance in engineers. However, this study was limited to only one profession, and further research can identify the predictive roles of religious coping and psychological capital in employee performance for other professions as well as assess the intersection of psychological capital and religious coping in other work-related outcomes.

Furthermore, the data collection process did not impose any gender or religious selection criteria, and employees were recruited indirectly through human resource (HR) managers or chief executive officers (CEOs). The limitation of gender imbalance in the data set likely mirrors the workforce demographics. Future research could aim for more balanced gender representation to strengthen generalisability. In addition, as the study relied on self-reported measures, leaving the probability of self-report bias, further studies can utilise observational data to assess these variables. Finally, Muslim engineers were selected from South Asian ethnicity, it would be plausible to compare various religions and ethnicities to postulate a more cohesive understanding and applications of the present study model. Future studies can further investigate similar study objectives across cultures such as individualistic vs collectivistic cultures and/or across religions.

The findings highlight the utilisation of religious coping for better work productivity of engineers. It also suggests that in the absence of external motivators, internalised coping mechanisms such as religion and psychological strengths can facilitate employees to maintain hope and positivity, lending support to better work productivity. Importantly, the study is contextualised in the Pakistani organisational settings; however, the findings highlight the broader implications of religious coping beyond Pakistan to regions such as South Africa where religiosity remains a significant socio-cultural force for many individuals (Kotzé & Loubser, 2017). Research on religiosity at the workplace across diverse cultural contexts, including the South African context, similarly highlights its positive role in promoting purpose, connectedness at the workplace and positive work attitude (Alqhaiwi & Luu, 2024; Bickerton & Miner, 2021; Pandey & Singh, 2019). While forms or expressions of religious coping may vary across the regions, the fundamental mechanism of meaning-making, value-driven behaviour and affect regulation remains culture-free and similarly beneficial across cultures. Hence, the study findings contribute to the existing global literature on organisational psychology by providing evidence from a Muslim majority non-Western population, while offering insights for broader implications of the findings across settings where religiosity or spirituality comprise the meaningful part of employees’ lives.

Given the study’s findings highlighting the beneficial role of religious coping. Evidence-based religious training can be introduced in organisational training programmes to increase workplace performance and foster employee mental health (De Diego-Cordero et al., 2022). In such training programmes, several intervention strategies can be introduced specifically focusing on boosting morale through religious coping and building psychological strengths. As organisations and policymakers have become more interested in implementing evidence-based management strategies, the findings from the current study will provide guidance in policy formulations and to use best human resource management practices for psychological strength enhancement when working with engineers. The results also point to a wider acceptance and endorsement of training that supports constructive religious coping mechanisms as a means of increasing efficiency at work.