Abstract
Orientation: Industrial and organisational psychology (IOP) is both a scientific discipline and a caring profession. Preparing graduates for this dual mandate requires pedagogical approaches that develop scientific competence alongside ethical awareness, interpersonal effectiveness and a commitment to human flourishing.
Research purpose: This opinion article argues that Fink’s Taxonomy of Significant Learning provides a more comprehensive framework than traditional cognitive taxonomies for designing IOP curricula.
Motivation for the study: While Bloom’s Taxonomy remains influential in higher education, its emphasis on cognitive outcomes may under-represent the interpersonal, ethical and affective capabilities required of contemporary IOP practitioners. Given the Health Professions Council of South Africa’s emphasis on both scientific rigour and human flourishing, there is a need to reconsider the pedagogical frameworks that underpin IOP education.
Research approach/design and method: The article adopts a conceptual and reflective approach, drawing on educational theory, pedagogical scholarship and professional guidelines to examine the value of Fink’s taxonomy for IOP education.
Main findings: Fink’s taxonomy integrates foundational knowledge, application, integration, the human dimension, caring and learning how to learn. These dimensions closely align with the competencies expected of IOP practitioners and support the development of reflective, ethical and practice-ready graduates.
Practical/managerial implications: The article demonstrates how Fink’s taxonomy can guide curriculum design, teaching and assessment to foster both disciplinary expertise and professional capability.
Contribution/value-add: The article reframes pedagogy in IOP as a scholarly endeavour and offers a holistic framework for preparing graduates to address the complex human and organisational challenges of contemporary workplaces.
Keywords: industrial and organisational psychology; pedagogy; curriculum design; Fink’s Taxonomy of Significant Learning; significant learning; higher education; professional competence; human flourishing.
Industrial and organisational psychology’s dual mandate: Science and people
Industrial and organisational psychology (IOP) is fundamentally both a science and a caring profession. The Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA, 2025) defines IOP as:
[T]he science and practice of professionals who function in organisational and occupational settings with an aim to ethically explain, assess and influence human behaviour and its reciprocity at individual, group and organisational levels, with all efforts directed at human flourishing and the sustainable development of all affected stakeholders. (p. 3)
This dual positioning has important implications for the education and training of industrial and organisational psychologists. An IOP curriculum must impart scientific rigour and analytical competence, ensuring that graduate and postgraduate students are able to interpret data critically, apply evidence-based principles and uphold ethical standards (HPCSA, 2025), while also demonstrating a deep concern for people’s well-being and employee flourishing. As Graupner (2021, 2025) noted, industrial and organisational psychologists play a vital role in supporting employees and fostering a sense of meaning, particularly during times of uncertainty or organisational crises.
Industrial and organisational psychologists, therefore, require disciplinary knowledge as well as interpersonal sensitivity, ethical awareness, self-reflection and the ability to engage meaningfully with diverse individuals and workplace contexts (American Psychological Association [APA], 2018; HPCSA, 2025). Research on the education and training of South African industrial and organisational psychologists further suggests that professional preparation involves the development of self-awareness, professional identity, confidence, resilience, ethical sensitivity, cultural competence, emotional literacy and lifelong learning capacities alongside technical and theoretical competence (Coetzee et al., 2022; Oosthuizen et al., 2023). Such competencies reflect not only professional and ethical requirements within IOP, but also the broader social, emotional and employability skills increasingly required for effective workplace practice.
Developing these competencies and broader social-emotional and employability skills; however, requires more than the transmission of disciplinary content alone, but substantially depends on how students are taught, engaged and assessed throughout their professional training. If we at tertiary institutions focus solely on content knowledge (for example, theories and data), we may overlook or undervalue the empathy, ethics and human perspective that are central to our field. Encouragingly, South African research over the last decade has increasingly emphasised the importance of human-centred competencies in IOP practice and training (Barkhuizen et al., 2014, 2015; Coetzee et al., 2022; De Greeff & Els, 2024; Du Plessis & Thomas, 2021; Graupner, 2021, 2025), and as such, pedagogy in IOP must model this duality: combining technical mastery with the cultivation of empathy and humanity. Therefore, pedagogy matters because it shapes not only what students know, but also who they become as future IOP practitioners.
Knowledge transfer in a complex higher education system
Developing such competencies, however, is not a straightforward educational task. The transfer of knowledge, skills, values and professional behaviours from higher education to workplace practice occurs within a complex system shaped by various interacting influences. Research suggests that academics’ teaching practices are affected by their pedagogical beliefs and knowledge, as well as by institutional cultures, workload pressures, class sizes, assessment requirements, research expectations, leadership practices, available resources and broader policy environments (Leibowitz, 2014; Leibowitz et al., 2015; Trigwell & Prosser, 2020; Van Schalkwyk et al., 2015). Consequently, both pedagogical considerations and contextual realities inform decisions about what is taught, how it is taught and what forms of learning are prioritised.
While these contextual factors shape educational practice, lecturers must nevertheless make deliberate choices about the kinds of learning they wish to encourage. In higher education, these choices are typically communicated through a module or course’s intended learning outcomes. These learning outcomes guide the selection of teaching activities and assessment practices through the principle of constructive alignment (Biggs, 2012). As a result, the frameworks used to conceptualise learning outcomes play an important role in determining what is valued, taught and assessed.
In higher education, curriculum and assessment practices are frequently organised around measurable learning outcomes, cognitive performance and demonstrable academic achievement, particularly within outcomes-based and accreditation-driven educational systems (Alyasin et al., 2023; Bendassolli et al., 2023; South African Qualifications Authority [SAQA], 2000). Consequently, educational frameworks and taxonomies often place substantial emphasis on cognitive development. This emphasis is understandable, as critical thinking, reasoning and problem-solving skills are strongly associated with knowledge transfer and professional effectiveness (Billing, 2003; Glaser, 1984; Prakong, 2024). However, for professions such as IOP, cognitive competence alone is insufficient.
Aligning learning outcomes with the dual mandate of industrial and organisational psychology
If IOP education aims to prepare graduates for both scientific and people-centred practice, then learning outcomes must extend beyond the development of knowledge and intellectual skills alone. This raises an important pedagogical question: how should learning outcomes be structured to reflect both the scientific and human dimensions of IOP? Learning taxonomies provide lecturers with a framework for defining, organising and assessing learning outcomes. Schaper (2023), writing on the teaching of Work and Organisational Psychology, argues that learning goal taxonomies are important tools for formulating learning outcomes, analysing the requirements of learning and assessment tasks, and ensuring constructive alignment between intended outcomes, teaching activities and assessment practices.
Bloom’s Taxonomy and its revised version provide a widely used framework for conceptualising and assessing cognitive learning outcomes in higher education (Conklin, 2005; Momen et al., 2023). Among the available learning taxonomies, Bloom’s framework remains particularly influential. Its prominence is evident in psychology education literature, including the International Handbook of Psychology Learning and Teaching (Zumbach et al., 2023), as well as in South African quality assurance frameworks and university curriculum and assessment practices (Dos Reis et al., 2022; Meyer, n.d.; Oosthuizen et al., 2019; SAQA, 2000, 2017, 2021). Bloom’s continued influence reflects the importance placed on developing critical thinking, reasoning, problem-solving and other cognitive competencies that support professional effectiveness.
However, the dual mandate of IOP extends beyond cognitive competence. A curriculum guided primarily by cognitive learning outcomes may risk under-emphasising affective (for example, values and attitudes) and interpersonal outcomes. In the South African IOP context, where graduates engage with diverse clients and sensitive workplace issues such as counselling employees and addressing trauma, omitting a ‘caring’ dimension represents a significant limitation.
Fink’s Taxonomy of Significant Learning: A framework for industrial and organisational psychology education
While alternative frameworks, such as the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) Taxonomy (Boll, 2023; Brabrand & Dahl, 2009; Sprecher, 2019), have also been proposed to broaden conceptions of learning beyond purely cognitive outcomes, Fink’s Taxonomy of Significant Learning appears particularly well suited to IOP education. This is because it explicitly incorporates dimensions of personal development, interpersonal understanding, values, caring and lifelong learning, while retaining a strong emphasis on knowledge and application.
According to Fink (2013), learning involves change within the student; if no change occurs, learning has not taken place. Therefore, significant learning refers to lasting change that has a meaningful impact on students’ understanding, actions, perspectives or future learning. Fink’s taxonomy conceptualises learning as an interactive process in which multiple dimensions of learning are interconnected and mutually reinforcing rather than occurring in a fixed sequence (Fink, 2007). The six dimensions contained in Fink’s (2013) taxonomy are Foundational Knowledge (understanding key ideas), Application (practical skills), Integration (connecting ideas across contexts), Human Dimension (understanding self and others), Caring (developing new feelings, values, or attitudes) and Learning How to Learn (developing lifelong learning skills). Thus, Fink (2007, 2013) argues that learning becomes more significant and effective when students perceive it as personally meaningful and relevant to their lives, increasing the likelihood that knowledge and skills will be retained, understood, transferred and applied in new situations.
Applying Fink’s taxonomy to the design of IOP modules enables them to simultaneously teach core theory, practise skills, encourage value development and foster self-awareness. When compared with the HPCSA’s requirements for industrial psychology training (HPCSA, 2025), Fink’s taxonomy aligns naturally across all domains, making it an ideal framework for course design. For example, Fink (2013, p. 31) describes Foundational Knowledge as ‘the basic understanding that is necessary for other kinds of learning’. In IOP training, it is therefore essential that foundational knowledge in the core categories (e.g. organisational psychology, personnel psychology, career psychology, and employee wellness and/or well-being, testing and assessment, and professional ethics) is both conveyed and assessed. This should be complemented by knowledge in related fields that enrich understanding and application, such as engineering psychology, cross-cultural psychology, humanitarian psychology, industrial relations and occupational health psychology.
In the IOP lecture hall, the Application category is central to the learning process. Fink (2013) emphasises that Application learning goes beyond acquiring facts and ideas and extends to teaching students how to engage in intellectual, physical or social actions. A case-based learning approach may therefore be particularly appropriate, as it encourages learners to connect theory with practice and develop contextually relevant interventions (Schaper, 2023). For example, in organisational psychology, students need to apply critical and practical thinking by analysing case studies, designing change interventions or developing team-based solutions. In personnel psychology, they practise skills such as conducting job analyses, designing selection processes, interpreting assessment results and making evidence-based human resource decisions. Through an application approach in module design, students also develop transferable skills such as communication, problem-solving, teamwork and project management, making their theoretical knowledge actionable and relevant to real-world organisational contexts. Consistent with this approach, recent meta-analytic evidence indicates that case- and problem-based learning can improve academic performance, motivation and engagement compared with traditional lecture-based instruction (Wijnia et al., 2024; Wu et al., 2023).
According to Fink (2013), Integration occurs when students recognise connections between ideas, people or different areas of life, giving them new intellectual power. In IOP, this means modules should be linked rather than taught in isolation. For example, the skills students develop in counselling and facilitation modules, such as active listening, empathy and guiding reflective discussions, can be applied when providing clients with feedback on their psychological assessments. Similarly, skills developed in a module covering psychological assessment, such as structured interviewing, data interpretation and giving clear feedback, can support accurate organisational diagnosis and effective stakeholder guidance during change management. Such integration, however, typically requires collaboration among lecturers and the intentional design of cross-linked assignments that create opportunities for students to recognise how concepts and skills reinforce one another across the curriculum (Huber & Hutchings, 2004).
Fink’s (2013) Human Dimension emphasises learning about oneself and others to interact more effectively. In IOP, this can be applied across all areas of teaching and practice because, as noted earlier, IOP integrates both scientific knowledge and concern for people. In the classroom, the Human Dimension can be developed through role-plays, case study analyses, psychometric assessments, feedback activities, peer feedback and problem-solving exercises that explore workplace stress, trauma and career challenges. Simulation- and role-play-based activities have been shown to enhance empathy and perspective-taking by encouraging students to engage with the experiences of others (Bearman et al., 2015; Cho & Kim, 2024). Psychometric assessment and feedback activities, particularly when combined with structured reflection, can promote greater self-understanding and intentional professional development (Lawrence et al., 2018). These activities help students gain self-awareness, understand others and appreciate the human impact of organisational and career-related issues before entering the workplace. It is also important that lecturers intentionally incorporate diverse perspectives and experiences (for example, reflective exercises, discussions, case studies or guest speakers) to broaden students’ understanding and foster empathy for diverse individuals and contexts.
According to Fink (2013), Caring is a change in the degree to which students value or care about something, which generates the energy needed to learn and make it part of their lives. Whereas the Human Dimension focuses on understanding oneself and others, the focus of the Caring dimension is changing what students value, find important or feel committed to. Students may come to care more deeply about a discipline, a professional responsibility, a social issue or the well-being of those affected by their work. For example, students in a research methods module may initially view statistics and psychometric principles as technical requirements. However, after using organisational data to identify workplace problems and evaluate interventions, they may come to appreciate the value of evidence-based decision making and develop a commitment to using scientific evidence rather than intuition when making professional recommendations. Similarly, in a workplace ergonomics module, students may initially focus on technical aspects of workstation design, but conducting real-world ergonomic assessments can help them appreciate how workplace design influences employee health and well-being, leading them to place greater value on designing work environments that promote both organisational effectiveness and employee well-being. To foster Caring, module content should be presented in a context that students can relate to at their current stage of learning, while lecturers also provide a broader picture of the world of work. When students understand where they are headed and why certain skills matter, they are more likely to value the impact their work can have on individuals, organisations and society. This deeper sense of care can motivate them to engage more fully in their learning and approach professional practice with greater commitment and responsibility. Research suggests that students are more engaged and motivated when they perceive learning activities as relevant and valuable to their future professional roles (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). For example, Darwin et al. (2022) found that activities linking algebra to students’ career interests increased both subject interest and interest in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) careers, suggesting that making learning personally relevant can strengthen students’ engagement with and valuing of what they are learning.
Lastly, Fink (2013) defines Learning How to Learn as the development of awareness of the learning process itself, enabling students to become more effective, self-directed learners. In the classroom, this means that lecturers should encourage students to reflect on what they are learning, ensuring that activities, assessments and projects are not completed mechanically but are instead geared towards genuine understanding and skill development. In IOP, this also involves the ability to seek out, evaluate and apply new knowledge about people, organisations and workplaces throughout one’s professional career. At the same time, lecturers model a mindset of continual learning, remaining open to new knowledge and approaches, which reinforces the value of learning how to learn for both students and lecturers. Such an approach is particularly important in IOP, where practitioners must continually adapt to evolving workplaces, emerging technologies and advances in psychological science. Research also indicates that developing self-regulated learning skills improves academic performance and motivation while also supporting students’ capacity to manage, monitor and direct their own learning over time (Theobald, 2021; Xu et al., 2023).
Intentional course design
Intentional course and assessment design is central to achieving significant learning in IOP. Following Fink’s taxonomy, lecturers should articulate learning objectives that extend beyond Foundational Knowledge to include the Human Dimension and Caring. Teaching activities and assessments should then be purposefully aligned with these outcomes to support the development of not only disciplinary expertise, but also the interpersonal awareness, ethical sensitivity and professional compassion required in IOP practice. Constructive alignment ensures that every activity, discussion or assessment directly supports the desired learning, whether cognitive, ethical or affective.
However, IOP lecturers do not need to innovate in isolation. A substantial body of literature on teaching psychology is available, and public concern about graduates’ readiness for the workplace (for example, Finger & Schreiner, 2025) underscores the importance of drawing on established pedagogical evidence rather than reinventing teaching practices on an ad hoc basis. For instance, the Teaching of Psychology journal (Society for the Teaching of Psychology, n.d.) and the Psychology Learning & Teaching journal (British Psychological Society, n.d.) regularly publish studies on active learning and assessment relevant to the field of psychology. Springer’s International Handbook of Psychology Learning and Teaching (Zumbach et al., 2023) provides practical and scholarly guidance across topics directly relevant to IOP, including psychological assessment, work and engineering psychology, cross-cultural psychology, individual differences and counselling psychology. It also provides concrete, evidence-based strategies that can assist IOP lecturers in designing and facilitating meaningful learning experiences in their courses.
Additionally, professional, international and local organisations offer guidance for IOP education. The APA (n.d.) and Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology (2017) publish recommendations for training industrial and organisational psychologists, while the Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology of South Africa (n.d.) has various practice guidelines for the different IOP interest groups. The HPCSA’s own 2025 guidelines on the Minimum Standards for the Training of Industrial Psychology outline competencies expected of graduates but leave the curriculum and instructional design largely to universities. In other words, being an IOP lecturer means maintaining a foot in both the psychological and educational literature.
Call to action
I encourage my fellow IOP lecturers to reflect critically on their teaching. Ask yourself:
- Do my learning outcomes include student attitudes and values, or just knowledge?
- Are my assessments aligned with the full range of skills our students need to develop?
- How can I integrate more human-centred exercises into my modules?
Engage with the wealth of pedagogical research and professional networks available. As we revise our programmes or write new courses, let us remember the core of psychology: we teach not only minds, but also people. In doing so, we not only align with HPCSA’s vision of ‘human flourishing’, but we reinforce the human-centred foundations of our discipline.
Conclusion
Industrial and organisational psychology is ultimately about people and their work lives. As lecturers, our challenge is to impart not only the technical expertise but also an appreciation of the human significance of our work. We should therefore not just focus on what we teach, but also engage with the pedagogy that informs how we teach. This can be achieved by incorporating frameworks such as Fink’s taxonomy to facilitate significant learning at all levels of study while routinely consulting the pedagogy literature and professional guidelines to inform curriculum and module design. Finally, just as we expect our students to collaborate in the classroom, we, as lecturers, must also work together, sharing insights and supporting one another in our collective efforts to enhance student learning and development. In this way, we advance the profession of IOP by developing knowledgeable, human-focussed, ethical and lifelong-learning emerging industrial and organisational psychologists.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Professors Sivan Chetty and Thea Tselepis for opening my eyes to the importance of pedagogy and inspiring me to continually reflect on my teaching practice. I am also deeply grateful to Professors Theo Veldsman, Crystal Hoole and Calvin Mabaso for their unwavering support over the years as Heads of Departments (HoDs), allowing me to attend various opportunities that enhanced my pedagogical skills and knowledge.
Competing interests
The author declares that no financial or personal relationships inappropriately influenced the writing of this article.
CRediT authorship contribution
Carin Hill: Conceptualisation, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. The author confirms that this work is entirely their own, has reviewed the article, approved the final version for submission and publication, and takes full responsibility for the integrity of its findings.
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management’s Research Ethics Committee (IPPM-REC) at the University of Johannesburg (No. IPPM-2025-1011).
Funding information
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article, as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.
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