ResultsPerceptions of the currently enacted organisational values Table 3 gives the results of the analysis of variance for the perceived currently enacted organisational value dimensions and Table 6 reports the means and standard deviations. They show that race had a significant effect on the OVS variables of performance monitoring, health and safety as well as risk and innovation. Whilst race and gender had a significant effect on teamwork, gender had a significant effect on ethical and responsible behaviour. Table 4 shows that Indians perceived the current enactment of the values of performance monitoring, risk and innovation as significantly less positive than the White and African participants did. Similarly, the Indian and Coloured participants perceived the current enactment of the values for health and safety as significantly less positive than the White and African participants did An interesting observation is that age had no significant effect on the OVS current enactment of value dimensions. Perceptions of the importance of organisational values With regard to the importance of values, Table 3 shows that race had a significant effect on alignment with the business strategy. Race and gender had a significant effect on teamwork, ethical and responsible behaviour, responsible self-development and problem solving. Table 6 reports the means and standard deviations. Race and age had a significant effect on being empowered to grow and contribute as well as on health and safety. Table 4a shows that the White and Coloured participants perceived the values for responsible self-development as less important than did the African participants. The African and White participants perceived the values for health and safety as significantly more important than the Coloured participants did. The White participants perceived the values of teamwork as significantly less important than the African participants did. With regard to age, Table 4b shows that the participants aged between 31 and 45 perceived the values of health and safety and being empowered to grow and contribute as being significantly less important than did their older counterparts (those between 46 and 59). Table 5 shows that the women participants perceived the values of ethical and responsible behaviour, responsible self-development, teamwork and problem solving as significantly more important than did the men participants. The results provide evidence for Hyptohesis 1 (men and women staff members, and members from the different race and age groups, differ significantly in their perceptions of the currently enacted organisational values and of their importance), which was accepted.
DiscussionOrganisational culture and employee perception surveys are important ways of assessing the match between enacted and espoused organisational values. Organisations can use the results of these surveys to improve the work environment and increase the effectiveness of the organisational culture (Grossman, 2009; Robbins & Judge, 2011; Kreitner & Kinicki, 2010). Table 7 shows that the perceptions of the race groups especially, followed by the gender groups, had a significant effect on a number of the organisational value dimensions. The perceptions of the age groups had a significant effect on the importance of only two of the organisational value dimensions (being empowered to grow and contribute as well as health and safety). These findings seem to corroborate the view of Koivula (2008) that different socio-demographic groups in the workplace tend to have different values. Values represent what is important to people and employees tend to bring their values to the workplace. Research has also shown that large companies tend to have sub-cultures because of occupational, professional or functional divisions and backgrounds that relate to gender, age, race, socio-economic circumstances and educational levels (Greenberg, 2005). Luthans (2011) states that organisations often overlook the importance of subcultures. Watson (2006, p. 459) defines a subculture as occurring ‘where a section of an organisation follows a cultural pattern that is a variation of the main organisational pattern of measuring and values’. When such a pattern includes values that contradict the main organisational ones, one sometimes calls it a contra culture. Sub-cultures tend to develop in large organisations to reflect common perceptions, problems, situations and experiences (Lok & Crawford, 1999; Martins & Coetzee, 2007; Martins & Von der Ohe, 2006; Robbins & Judge, 2011). According to Koivula (2008), sub-groups tend to approach organisational interactions with their own meanings and sense of priorities. In addition, for group tasks that require making decisions, judgement and creativity, the type of homogeneity that value similarity amongst employees creates may actually inhibit performance. On the other hand, when all groups share the importance of organisational values, this often increases achievement motivation, communication, knowledge sharing and teamwork (Koivula, 2008). Koivula (2008) suggests that it is more advisable to align employees to a core set of common values that all share instead of trying to change the values of an organisation’s employees. It is important to recognise the different perceptions of staff members from the various race, gender and age groups in a company. Differences in perceptions often reflect the unique needs, problems and experiences of these sub-groups (Martin & Von der Ohe, 2006). This may weaken the overall organisational culture as well as affect overall organisational performance and effectiveness (Robbins & Judge, 2011). The present study suggests that the Indian participants feel more negative than do the White and African participants about the way the organisation monitors performance. Monitoring performance means monitoring the attitudes to, and behaviour of, employees and leaders when they accept accountability for tracking their own and others’ performance, providing feedback and encouraging others to develop the skills they need to deliver results. The Indian participants seem to perceive monitoring behaviour that relates to risk and innovation (seeking and implementing breakthrough ideas and approaches, being committed to excellence and innovation) as less positive than do the African and White participants. Research by Eskildsen and Dahlgaard (2000) shows that leadership behaviour and management practices, which address the needs of employees for creative challenges and quality of work or life, improve employee satisfaction. The African and White participants, and those aged between 46 and 59, seem to regard health and safety as being more important than do the Coloured participants. However, the Indian and Coloured participants, and those aged between 31 and 45, seem less positive about the enactment of the values for health and safety. The results suggest that they feel that members could take on more responsibility for promoting health and safety or addressing unsafe and unhealthy work processes and behaviour. An interesting observation is that the women and African participants seem to regard the values associated with teamwork as being more important than do the men and White participants. The women participants also seem to attach greater value than do the men to the values associated with problem solving (making an effort to understand problems, finding the best solutions, sharing insights with others and implementing correct ideas). According to Smit and Cronje (2002), Africans relate to an Afrocentric value system whilst White people relate more to a Eurocentric value system. The Afrocentric value system relates to a more ‘feminine culture’ that emphasises nurturing, the commonality of all people, shared vision and values, communal efforts as well as a concern for relationships and the living environment. The Eurocentric value system relates to a more ‘masculine culture’ and is more concerned about achieving material success, position and rewarding individual merit. Assertiveness, ambition and competitiveness characterise the Eurocentric culture. Campion, Medsker and Higgs (1993) found a positive and significant correlation between employee satisfaction and communication as well as cooperation between work groups. They also found positive and significant correlations between employee satisfaction and workload sharing as well as between employee satisfaction and social support. The differences between the various race groups seem to agree with research that Martins and von der Ohe (2006) conducted on subcultures in the South African context. Their findings indicate that race groups tend to experience organisational cultural dimensions differently and that they tend to modify their values to reflect their own situations and needs. The women and African participants also seem to attach greater importance than do the men and White participants to the values of responsible self-development. This refers to taking responsibility for one’s self-development, seeking feedback from others, developing new skills and seeking growth and development opportunities. The participants in the establishment phase of the life or career (46 to 59 years old) seem to attach greater importance to the values of being empowered to grow and contribute. This value relates to developing the skills and competencies they need to perform their jobs and receiving the necessary support and guidance. One could attribute this to the rapidly changing technological developments, which may cause skills and competencies to become obsolete, and the concerns of people about continued employability (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2011). With regard to gender, the research findings on gender differences indicate that gender is a moderator in employee-attitude research (Kidd & Smewing, 2001; Smith, Smits & Hoy, 1998). Their findings suggest a positive linear relationship between supervisor support and commitment for women in particular. Women also have a greater need for emotionally supportive work environments as a source of career satisfaction (Nabi, 2001). Research by Eskildsen and Dahlgaard (2000) showed that an organisation could improve employee satisfaction by focusing on improving organisational performance in issues like leader behaviour, management practices and processes that increase employee feelings and perceptions of empowerment, involvement, recognition and growth opportunities. An interesting observation is that the women participants seem to attach greater value to the enactment of ethical and responsible behaviour. This value relates to behaving in an ethical and responsible manner towards employees as well as honouring and respecting the values, goals, rules, regulations, policies and procedures of organisations. On the other hand, the men participants perceived enacting these behaviours as less positive than did the women. According to Weiss (2001), organisational culture has a pervasive influence on the ethical behaviour of all and leaders set the moral tone. Maak and Pless (2006) agree and state that ethical and responsible behaviour requires leadership that cultivates a work environment where diverse people find meaning, feel respected, recognised and included (not discriminated against or harassed) and where they are able to contribute to their potential in a business and moral sense. Limitations and recommendations Future investigations should consider some of the limitations of this study. Firstly, because the present study was limited to participants in a single company in the manufacturing industry, one cannot generalise the findings to other economic sectors. Secondly, given that White participants and men dominated the sample, a more balanced sample would have contributed more meaningful insights about the socio-demographic differences between the race, gender and age groups. It is recommended that participants from various organisations and occupational contexts, and a more demographically diverse group, are used in future studies to obtain a more representative sample. Thirdly, longitudinal studies are needed to validate the differences between the various socio-demographic groups the researchers observed in this study. Although the social context of an organisation creates and sustains an organisation’s culture, it is dynamic and constantly evolving (Brooks, 2009). In the context of employment equity and affirmative action, researchers should examine, both theoretically and empirically, the constructs that are relevant to the present study, as well as other psychological constructs, to yield broader conclusions about how the socio-demographic characteristics of employees influence their perceptions of the enactment of the core organisational values espoused in the dominant organisational culture. Conclusions and implications for practice Given that employment equity and affirmative action have contributed to a more demographically diversified workforce in South African workplaces, one can conclude that the findings of the present study added valuable new knowledge that organisations can use to inform their organisational practices concerned with creating strong organisational cultures for sustained effectiveness. Organisations can use the findings when designing interventions aimed at achieving a greater match or better fit between the core values of the dominant organisational culture and its staff members.
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