Email this article 
Hide
Show all
Original Research - Special Collection: Mental Health Research in African Organisations
Differential item functioning of the CESDR-R and GAD-7 in African and white working adults
Submitted: 20 March 2019 | Published: 10 October 2019
About the author(s)
Carolina Henn, Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management, College of Business and Economics, Faculty of Management, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South AfricaBrandon Morgan, Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management, College of Business and Economics, Faculty of Management, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa
Abstract
Orientation: Depression and anxiety can have undesirable consequences for employees and their employers. It is therefore important that employers pay attention to the existence and extent of depression and anxiety. However, measuring these constructs requires unbiased, reliable and valid instruments.
Research purpose: To facilitate unbiased measurement of depression and anxiety, we investigated differential item functioning of the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised (CESD-R) and Generalised Anxiety Disorder Scale 7 (GAD-7) in a sample of non-clinical African and white working adults.
Motivation for the study: Biased measurement instruments can lead to serious problems when comparing scores between groups, using raw score cut-offs, or creating norm scores. Practitioners are legally and ethically required to ensure that any instrument used is unbiased.
Research approach/design and method: A cross-sectional survey design was used. The CESD-R and GAD-7 were administered to working adults. A final sample of 551 CESD-R responses and 529 GAD-7 responses were included in the analyses. Ordinal logistic regression was performed to investigate differential item functioning.
Main findings: Both CESD-R and GAD-7 showed some evidence of differential item functioning although it was mostly small in magnitude. Item bias had some minor non-negligible impact on aggregated observed scores within specific ranges of the underlying traits.
Practical/managerial implications: Both CESD-R and GAD-7 show promise as instruments that can be utilised to explore the experience of anxiety and depression in African and white employees.
Contribution/value-add: This study is a promising first step towards the measurement fairness of the CESD-R and GAD-7 in the South African context.
Keywords
Metrics
Total abstract views: 4829Total article views: 8243
Crossref Citations
1. An exploration of the impact of COVID-19 on mental health in South Africa
Jeroen De Man, Mario R. Smith, Marguerite Schneider, Hanani Tabana
Psychology, Health & Medicine vol: 27 issue: 1 first page: 120 year: 2022
doi: 10.1080/13548506.2021.1954671
2. Impact of Emergency Remote Teaching on Student Anxiety:
Conrad S. Zygmont, Charlene R.Reinecke, Daniel R. du Plooy
Pan-African Journal of Education and Social Sciences vol: 5 issue: 2 first page: 54 year: 2024
doi: 10.56893/pajes2024v05i02.05
3. Developing a brief acceptance and commitment therapy model for industrial psychologists
Xander Van Lill, Rinet Van Lill
SA Journal of Industrial Psychology vol: 48 year: 2022
doi: 10.4102/sajip.v48i0.1897
4. A Concise Occupational Mental Health Screening Tool for South African Workplaces
Charles H. Van Wijk, Jarred H. Martin, W. A. J. Meintjes
Frontiers in Psychology vol: 13 year: 2022
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.895137
5. Evidências de Validade da GAD-7 em Adolescentes Brasileiros
Michelle de Farias Leite, André Faro
Psico-USF vol: 27 issue: 2 first page: 345 year: 2022
doi: 10.1590/1413-82712022270211
6. An exploratory study of the mental health of first responders: depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder
Anita Padmanabhanunni, Tyrone B Pretorius
South African Journal of Psychology vol: 55 issue: 2 first page: 257 year: 2025
doi: 10.1177/00812463251317901
7. Cross-cultural validity of the generalized anxiety disorder 7-item scale (GAD-7): a systematic review and standardized assessment
Anastasia Mantzari, Lorena Botella-Juan, Prateek Yadav, Grace Lavelle, Ana Henriques, Daniel Munblit, Amy Ronaldson, Alex Dregan, Ioannis Bakolis, Mariana Pinto da Costa, Maria Carmen Viana, Alba Marcos-Delgado, Antonio J Molina, Vicente Martín, Jose M Valderas, Gemma Vilagut, Jordi Alonso, Jorge Arias de la Torre
Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences vol: 35 year: 2026
doi: 10.1017/S2045796026100560
8. Sacrifice is a step beyond convenience: A review of convenience sampling in psychological research in Africa
Salome E. Scholtz
SA Journal of Industrial Psychology vol: 47 year: 2021
doi: 10.4102/sajip.v47i0.1837
9. Self-Guided Smartphone App (Vimbo) for the Reduction of Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety in South African Adults: Pilot Quantitative Single-Arm Study
Sherrie Steyn, Meggan Slabbert
JMIR Formative Research vol: 9 first page: e54216 year: 2025
doi: 10.2196/54216
10. Psychometric Analysis of Scores on the GAD‐7 With University Students
Elizabeth L. Sweeting, Bradley T. Erford, Martin F. Sherman, Imani Bryant, Heather L. Smith, Julie Sriken
Journal of Counseling & Development vol: 104 issue: 4 first page: 517 year: 2026
doi: 10.1002/jcad.70053
11. Psychometric Analysis of Scores on a Mexican Dialect Spanish Adapted Version of the GAD-7 with Mexican Earthquake Survivors
Bradley Erford, Martin Sherman, Imani Bryant, Laura Shannonhouse
International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling vol: 47 issue: 4 first page: 880 year: 2025
doi: 10.1007/s10447-025-09612-4
12. The Job-Search Self-Efficacy (JSSE) Scale: an Item Response Theory Investigation
Enoch Teye-Kwadjo
International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology vol: 6 issue: 3 first page: 301 year: 2021
doi: 10.1007/s41042-021-00050-2
13. Sex Differences in Depression and Anxiety Symptoms: Measurement Invariance, Prevalence, and Symptom Heterogeneity Among University Students in South Africa
N. Florence Tadi, Kaylene Pillay, Ufuoma P. Ejoke, Itumeleng P. Khumalo
Frontiers in Psychology vol: 13 year: 2022
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.873292
14. Psychological, Experiential, and Behavioral Predictors of Climate Change Anxiety Among South African University Students
Erinn C. Cameron, Ashraf Kagee
Trends in Psychology year: 2025
doi: 10.1007/s43076-025-00444-0
15. Community health survey development, administration, social determinants and mental health in African immigrants and refugees in Portland Oregon
Vincent Chirimwami, Egide Dukuzumuremyi, Joy Mulumba, Noni Canavan, Mark Van Ryzin, Andrew W. Bergen
BMC Public Health vol: 25 issue: 1 year: 2025
doi: 10.1186/s12889-025-24599-8
16. Clinical validation of brief mental health scales for use in South African occupational healthcare
Charles H. van Wijk, Jarred H. Martin, David J.F. Maree
SA Journal of Industrial Psychology vol: 47 year: 2021
doi: 10.4102/sajip.v47i0.1895
