SA Journal of Industrial Psychology

Research purpose: The objective of the study was to explore the relationship between individuals’ archetypal values (measured by the Pearson–Marr Archetype Indicator) and career orientations (measured by the Career Orientations Inventory). The study also assessed the differences between race, gender, marital status, employment status and age groups regarding the archetypal values and career orientations of the individuals.

Motivation for study: Career counsellors and industrial psychologists are increasingly required to explore new career guidance frameworks that are relevant and appropriate to the evolving nature of careers.

Research design, approach and method: A quantitative survey was conducted. A non-probability sample of 207 voluntary participants employed within the science and engineering sector was obtained.

Main findings: Correlational analyses revealed that the participants’ archetypal values related significantly to their career orientations. The various biographical groups differed significantly regarding their archetypal values and career orientations.

Practical/managerial implications: The findings highlight the importance of understanding the deep-seated archetypal values that seem to explain the individuals’ career choices and decisions, and how these values differ regarding these choices and decisions.

Contribution/value-add: The explanatory utility of the results may prove useful to enhance the individuals’ self-insight in their career choices and experiences. This study represents original research that contributes new knowledge to the field of career psychology and career counselling practices.

These demands on the individuals have led to a renewed interest in the motivations and driving forces patterning individuals’ career development over time (Maree, 2010). In agreement with this, Maree (2010) and Savickas et al. (2009) state that the attention given to understanding the values and motives underlying the individuals’ career decisions and choices, is a prominent focus in post modern career counselling and guidance practices today. In the light of the foregoing trends, this research sets out to determine the relationship between two constructs that form part of the foregoing trends in individual career decision making and career counselling, namely archetypal values and career orientations.

Research further recognises that the individuals’ personal perspectives provide the framework for career development. In this personal perspective careers, are only one of several aspects of personal development for the individual (Tams & Arthur, 2010). Individuals’ dominant life themes and career orientations represent some of the core values driving their personal and career development (Wrzesniewski, 2002). Savickas (2005) argues that the individuals’ personal life stories are used as a carrier of meaning (or holding space), during times of transition, to facilitate continuity in a chaotic and fragmented world. In a post-modern society, the focus of career counselling has, therefore, shifted to helping clients give meaning and purpose to their vocations in life. This is achieved by guiding them to reflect on the motivations and driving forces that pattern their dominant life themes and orientations during the various stages of their personal life journeys (Savickas, 2005).

Carol Pearson’s (1991) archetypal hero’s journey provides a framework for insight into the journey of long-term personal development within the careers context. According to Pearson and Marr (2002), archetypes relate to the desires and motivations common to human beings in all cultural contexts. The archetypal framework helps individuals to identify and understand the archetypal values underlying the dominant life themes active in their lives at a given time, and helps them to gain insight into the direction, needs and potential obstacles to growth and development present in their lives at that time (Pearson & Marr, 2003). The concept of archetypes presents ways of understanding and organising human experience and has previously been applied within a limited number of studies within the careers context (Carr, 2002). It is believed that career counsellors can contribute to the enhancement of the individual’s growth and development through attaining an understanding of archetypal theory and its relation to personal development within the careers context (Pearson & Marr, 2003).

Schein’s (1978) career orientations theory, also referred to as career anchors, provides insight into the values that drive career decisions of people. Career anchors are described as patterns of self-perceived talents and abilities, basic values, motives and needs that pertain to careers and that influence individuals’ career related decisions (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2009a; Feldman & Bolino, 1996; Greenhaus, Callanan & Godshalk, 2010). Individuals’ career anchors, or underlying interests, motives and values serve the path that guides them in their decision-making (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2009a). Empirical evidence suggests that when individuals achieve congruence between their career anchors and their work environment, they are more likely to achieve positive career outcomes (Feldman & Bolino, 1996). Furthermore, research also indicates individuals’ need for congruence between their work and personal interests, and that individual preferences shift towards career anchors which are focused on the pursuit of personal interests, along with meaningful work (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2008). Individuals decide on career changes based on personal preferences and current circumstances (Coetzee, Schreuder & Tladinyane, 2007; Hess & Jepsen, 2009).

However, research on the relationship between individuals’ archetypal values and their career orientations seems to be limited. This study, therefore, aims to add to the careers literature by investigating the relationship between these constructs with the view to inform career counselling practices in the contemporary multi-cultural workplace context.

Pearson’s (1991) twelve archetype model is a spiral developmental model and is more complex than linear developmental models which contain set sequences of archetypes. Individuals encounter the same archetypes at different levels of integration as personal development progresses along the adult life journey. Combining adult development and the cognitive state, the twelve archetypes are ways of cognitively and emotionally organising life events and experiences in certain preferred manners represented by themes common to all cultures. As such they are typically called forth to handle particular life tasks. Although some archetypes may provide the basis for a person’s core story, others will flow in and out of his or her life in ways appropriate to life stages, circumstances, challenges as well as to the unique quality of mind and soul of the individual involved. In this regard, attention to the archetypes in individuals’ lives may both help one discover some fundamental source of meaning and track where one is on one’s life journey (Pearson & Marr, 2003).

As shown in Table 1, the archetypes of the ‘hero’ (or adult) are developmentally clustered as three groups of four: firstly, the ego or preparation phase of the adult’s or hero’s life journey (composed of the innocent, orphan, caregiver, and warrior), secondly, the soul or the initiation and meaning-making phase of the internal journey of the hero (composed of the seeker, lover, creator and destroyer), and, thirdly, the self which is regarded as the balancing point of the entire psyche (composed of the ruler, magician, sage and jester). The ego phase is usually encountered in greatest measure in young adulthood, regarded as the beginning of the adult journey, and the phase of establishing oneself and one’s ways in the external world. As a person becomes established, he or she often reaches a time of searching, which is a revisiting of the creation of identity and meaning with the internal life and internal soul journey becoming a prominent focus. Having experienced both an outward (ego) and an inward (soul) journey, a person becomes increasingly able to manage and balance the outward and inward life (integrating and expressing the self more fully) (Pearson & Marr, 2003).

Pearson’s (1991) model of archetypes enables individuals to normalise their experiences through the recognition of the universality of certain themes, and their underlying goals, desires and values which act as so called invisible psychological forces that drive people’s behaviour. Individuals are then able to understand these themes in the broader context of life stories which help them to construct meaning in their lives (Pearson & Marr, 2003; Savickas, 2005)

Career anchor theory provides a model of career development that takes into consideration the complexity of career development. The self-concept is central to Schein’s (1978) career anchor theory and represents individuals’ knowledge of their skills and talents, their understanding of what is important to the self, and their motives or values that serve as an internal driving force when making career decisions (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2009b; Kanye & Crous, 2007; Schein, 1985; Van Vuuren & Fourie, 2000). Career anchors tend to develop over time and individuals generally discover their career anchors only after having worked for some time (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2009a, 2009b; Ellison & Schreuder, 2000; Van Vuuren & Fourie, 2000). The self-concept is continuously developed based on the insight gained through knowledge and experience (Schein, 2006b).

Research by Schein (1978; 1990; 1996) suggests that most people’s career self-concepts (motives and values) are grounded in eight categories or anchors (summarised in Table 2):

• autonomy or independence, which includes a person’s need for freedom from organisational constraints in order to pursue professional competence

• technical or functional competence, which is the motivation to develop one’s technical or functional knowledge and expert skill

• general managerial competence, which can be described as the desire to attain a position that requires the application of interpersonal, political, analytical and financial skills associated with management

• entrepreneurial creativity, the need to create or build (rather than manage) something that is entirely one’s own project

• lifestyle, the need to integrate work, family, and self-concerns into a coherent lifestyle

• pure challenge, the need to test one’s abilities by single-mindedly focusing on winning out over or competing with extremely tough opponents and solving a variety of challenging problems

• service or dedication to a cause, the need to align work activities with personal skills and values related to helping society and to improve the world in some fashion and

• security or stability, the need for job security (associated with benefit packages and long-term employment) in an organisation and stability in a geographical area. Table 2 provides a brief overview of the core goals, desires and values underlying each of the eight career anchors.

Pearson’s (1991) theory of archetypes suggests that the innocent and the orphan archetypal values have a close relationship with the security or stability career orientations. The innocent archetype describes an individual who is dependent on others for care and safety (Pearson, 1991). Individuals with this archetype prominent within their lives, expect organisations to provide them with safety and care for the entirety of their careers. The security or stability career orientation is also associated with a strong need for a stable career and is often reflected as a search for financial and geographical security (Schein, 2006b). Security or stability is a prominent career anchor for individuals in the context of volatile economic situations and increasing unemployment (Erdogmus, 2004). The creator and magician archetypal values may be related to the entrepreneurial creativity career orientation. The creator archetype is characterised by inspiration and creativity (Pearson, 1991). Individuals with this archetypal value present in their lives have a vision of their future, and wish to play an active role in creating the future they envision for themselves (Pearson, 1991). The magician archetypal value is mainly concerned with transformation and creating an environment that is conducive to the growth of others (Pearson, 1991). The entrepreneurial creativity career orientation is driven by the desire to create or build something new (Schein, 1985; 2006b).

The seeker and destroyer archetypal values may be related to the autonomy or independence and pure challenge career orientations. Individuals with the seeker prominent in their lives experience conflict between individuation and conformity (Pearson, 1991). The destroyer enables an individual to let go of things that do not support his or her goals (Pearson, 1991). Through the activation of the destroyer archetypal value individuals can create a better environment for themselves (Pearson, 1991). The autonomy or independence career orientation is associated with a desire to be free from organisational restrictions (Schein, 1985; 2006b). Individuals with this value become frustrated with rules and regulations, and seemingly senseless routine tasks (Schein, 1985; 2006b). Individuals with this career orientation are driven by their desire to live according to their own choices (Feldman & Bolino, 2000). The pure challenge career orientation involves solving problems and being challenged within a career. Failure to be challenged leads to boredom and frustration (Schein, 1985; 2006b). The warrior and the ruler archetypal values appear to be related to the general managerial competence career orientation. The warrior archetypal value is characterised by goal attainment and carefully formulated plans (Pearson & Marr, 2003). In the organisational context the warrior archetype enables individuals to assert and protect themselves and is also associated with excellent performance (Pearson, 1991). When the ruler archetypal value is dominant within an individual’s life, they are concerned with forming a vision and setting goals (Pearson & Marr, 2003). The ruler archetype is also associated with power and using power in a responsible manner (Pearson, 1991). Within the work environment the ruler is often seen as a culmination of experience and knowledge and represents the management and leadership roles that an individual fulfils (Pearson, 1997). The general managerial competence career orientation involves a desire to amalgamate the efforts of different people (Schein, 2006b). Individuals who hold this career orientation are often drawn to roles with power and responsibility that enable them to use their interpersonal skills (Schein, 1985; 2006b).

The lover and the caregiver archetypal values seem to be related to the service or dedication to a cause career orientation. The lover archetypal value represents relationships and commitment (Pearson, 1991). The lover becomes evident when an individual experiences his or her career as a calling (Pearson, 1998). The caregiver archetypal value is mainly concerned with nuturance, comfort and encouragement (Pearson & Marr, 2003). When this archetype is activated within an individual, the focus is on caring for others and making a difference in people’s lives and the world in general (Pearson, 1998). People who hold the service or dedication to a cause career orientation are driven to achieve value in the areas of the world where they are involved (Schein, 1985; 2006). These individuals’ main concern is helping others. They view their careers as a calling and possess a strong sense of purpose (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2009b).

The jester archetypal value appears to be associated with the lifestyle integration career orientation. The jester archetypal value inspires enjoyment of life and focuses on the process of reaching goals instead of just focusing on attaining goals (Pearson, 1991). The jester also allows individuals to express themselves in a manner that is true to the self (Pearson, 1991). The lifestyle integration career orientation is mainly concerned with the integration of various aspects of an individual’s life. These individuals strive to achieve a balance between work, life, family and friends (Schein, 1985; 2006b).

The sage archetypal value seems to be related to the technical or functional competence career orientation. The sage seeks for a deeper understanding of people, life and issues without wishing to control or change these factors (Pearson, 1991). The sage is evident within specialists or experts who use this archetypal value to understand research problems by focusing on a specific field of study (Pearson, 1997). Individuals who hold the technical or functional competence career orientation place high value on their skills and link their sense of identity to challenges in their field (Schein, 1985; 2006b). These individuals find intrinsic meaning in their careers and see their careers as an extension of themselves and their talents (Schein, 1985; 2006b). Whereas individuals’ dominant career anchors tend to remain relatively stable once a level of stabilisation is reached in their jobs or careers (Schein, 1985), their archetypal life themes change over time as they encounter new situations and evolve as human beings (Pearson & Marr, 2003).

Age is an important consideration within career studies (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2008). The literature (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2008; Ellison & Schreuder, 2000; Pearson & Marr, 2003) suggests that individuals from different age groups differ according to their archetypal values and career orientations. Differences in marital status also seem to lead to differences in archetypal values and career orientations (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2008; Pearson, 1991). Limited literature is available on the differences between archetypal values of groups with a differing employment status. However, there is evidence that employment status plays a role in career orientation (Danzinger & Valency, 2006; Feldman & Bolino, 2000)

The Pearson–Marr Archetype Indicator (PMAI) is a self-rated, multi-factorial measure that contains 12 subscales (innocent, orphan, seeker, warrior, caregiver, destroyer, creator, lover, sage, magician, ruler and jester) consisting of a total of 72 items. Responses were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Acceptable internal consistency reliability and construct and factorial validity were evidenced by Pearson and Marr (2003) who report Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.57 (innocent), 0.71 (orphan), 0.70 (warrior), 0.73 (caregiver), 0.61 (seeker), 0.66 (destroyer), 0.71 (lover), 0.67 (creator), 0.69 (ruler), 0.67 (magician), 0.61 (sage) and 0.76 (jester). A South African study conducted by Els (2004) reported acceptable levels of internal consistency for most of the archetypes, varying from 0.51 (innocent) to 0.71 (caregiver and ruler). The exception was the seeker archetype which had yielded a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.36.

As the PMAI has not been standardised for South African populations, scale reliabilities were conducted for the sample group. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (internal-consistency coefficients) for the subscales ranged from 0.50 to 0.71. The relatively low reliability coefficients obtained for the PMAI were taken into account in the interpretation of the results.

The Career Orientations Inventory (COI) (Schein, 2006a) is an established instrument that has been used to measure career orientations both internationally and in South Africa. The COI is a self-report measure that contains 40 items. Responses were captured on a 6-point Likert-type scale. The COI has evidenced good psychometric validity and reliability in other South African samples (Coetzee & De Villiers, 2010; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2008, 2009a; 2009b; Ellison & Schreuder, 2000; Van Vuuren & Fourie, 2000), with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients varying between 0.46 and 0.85 in these studies.

In accordance with the guidelines provided by De Vos, Strydom and Fouche (2009) and Foxcroft and Roodt (2001), the psychometric properties of the PMAI and the COI were regarded as acceptable, as the study aimed to measure broad, group-based trends for research purposes.